Spray Freeze-Drying as an Alternative to the Ionic Gelation Method to Produce Chitosan and Alginate Nano-Particles Targeted to the Colon

The Potential Role of Plant Polysaccharides in Treatment of Ulcerative Colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) results in inflammation and ulceration of the colon and the rectum's inner lining. The application of herbal therapy in UC is increasing worldwide. As natural macromolecular compounds, polysaccharides have a significant role in the treatment of UC due to advantages of better biodegradation, good biocompatibility, immunomodulatory activity, and low reactogenicity. Therefore, polysaccharide drug formulation is becoming a potential candidate for UC treatment. In this review, we summarize the etiology and pathogenesis of UC and the therapeutic effects of polysaccharides on UC, such as regulating the expression of cytokines and tight junction proteins and modulating the balance of immune cells and intestinal microbiota. Polysaccharides can also serve as drug delivery carriers to enhance drug targeting and reduce side effects. This review provides a theoretical basis for applying natural plant polysaccharides in the prevention and treatment of UC.

Nanoemulsions Based on Soluble Chenopodin/Alginate Complex for Colonic Delivery of Quercetin

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an autoimmune disorder caused by uncontrolled immune activation and the subsequent destruction of the colon tissue. Quercetin (Qt) is a natural antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent proposed as an alternative to mitigate IBD. However, its use is limited by its low oral bioavailability. This study aimed to develop nanoemulsions (NEs) based on a soluble chenopodin/alginate (QPA) complex and Tween 80 (T80), intended for the colonic release of Qt, activated by the pH (5.4) and bacteria present in the human colonic microbiota. NEs with different ratios of QPA/Tw80 (F1-F6) were prepared, where F4Qt (60/40) and F5Qt (70/30) showed sizes smaller than 260 nm, PDI < 0.27, and high encapsulation efficiency (>85%). The stability was evaluated under different conditions (time, temperature, pH, and NaCl). The DSC and FTIR analyses indicated hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding interactions between QPA and Qt. F4Qt and F5Qt showed the greater release of Qt in PBS1X and Krebs buffer at pH 5.4 (diseased condition), compared to the release at pH 7.4 (healthy condition) at 8 h of study. In the presence of E. coli and B. thetaiotaomicron, they triggered the more significant release of Qt (ƒ2 < 50) compared to the control (without bacteria). The NEs (without Qt) did not show cytotoxicity in HT-29 cells (cell viability > 80%) and increased the antioxidant capacity of encapsulated Qt. Therefore, these NEs are promising nanocarriers for the delivery of flavonoids to the colon to treat IBD.

Ceftazidime-assisted synthesis of ultrasmall chitosan nanoparticles for biofilm penetration and eradication of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) infections present a grave threat to immunocompromised individuals, particularly those with cystic fibrosis due to the development of bacterial biofilms. In this study, we engineered self-assembling chitosan-ceftazidime nanoparticles (CSCE) capable of effectively penetrating biofilms and eradicating P. aeruginosa. The CSCE nanoparticles were synthesized through ionic cross-linking, combining negatively charged ceftazidime with positively charged chitosan, resulting in uniform nanoparticles measuring approximately 40 nm in diameter, exhibiting high dispersity and excellent biocompatibility. Remarkably, these nanoparticles exhibited significant inhibition of P. aeruginosa growth, reduced pyocyanin production, and diminished biofilm formation, achieving a maximum inhibition rate of 22.44%. Furthermore, in vivo investigations demonstrated enhanced survival in mice with abdominal P. aeruginosa infection following treatment with CSCE nanoparticles, accompanied by reduced levels of inflammatory cytokines Interleukin-6 (125.79 ± 18.63 pg/mL), Interleukin-17 (125.67 ± 5.94 pg/mL), and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (135.4 ± 11.77 pg/mL). Critically, mice treated with CSCE nanoparticles showed no presence of bacteria in the bloodstream following intraperitoneal P. aeruginosa infection. Collectively, our findings highlight the potential of these synthesized nanoparticles as effective agents against P. aeruginosa infections.

Alginate-based drug carrier systems to target inflammatory bowel disease: A review

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an inflammatory disorder that affects the gastrointestinal tract. IBD has become an increasingly common condition in both developed and developing nations over the last few decades, owing to a variety of factors like a rising population and diets packed with processed and junk foods. While the root pathophysiology of IBD is unknown, treatments are focused on medications aimed to mitigate symptoms. Alginate (AG), a marine-derived polysaccharide, is extensively studied for its biocompatibility, pH sensitivity, and crosslinking nature. This polymer is thoroughly researched in drug delivery systems for IBD treatment, as it is naturally available, non-toxic, cost effective, and can be easily and safely cross-linked with other polymers to form an interconnected network, which helps in controlling the release of drugs over an extended period. There are various types of drug delivery systems developed from AG to deliver therapeutic agents; among them, nanotechnology-based systems and hydrogels are popular due to their ability to facilitate targeted drug delivery, reduce dosage, and increase the therapeutic efficiency. AG-based carrier systems are not only used for the sustained release of drug, but also used in the delivery of siRNA, interleukins, and stem cells for site directed drug delivery and tissue regenerating ability respectively. This review is focussed on pathogenesis and currently studied medications for IBD, AG-based drug delivery systems and their properties for the alleviation of IBD. Moreover, future challenges are also be discoursed to improve the research of AG in the field of biopharmaceuticals and drug delivery.

The Progress of Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles for Intravesical Bladder Cancer Treatment

Bladder cancer (BC) is the most frequently occurring cancer of the urinary system, with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) accounting for 75-85% of all the bladder cancers. Patients with NMIBC have a good survival rate but are at high risk for tumor recurrence and disease progression. Intravesical instillation of antitumor agents is the standard treatment for NMIBC following transurethral resection of bladder tumors. Chemotherapeutic drugs are broadly employed for bladder cancer treatment, but have limited efficacy due to chemo-resistance and systemic toxicity. Additionally, the periodic voiding of bladder and low permeability of the bladder urothelium impair the retention of drugs, resulting in a weak antitumoral response. Chitosan is a non-toxic and biocompatible polymer which enables better penetration of specific drugs to the deeper cell layers of the bladder as a consequence of temporarily abolishing the barrier function of urothelium, thus offering multifaceted biomedical applications in urinary bladder epithelial. Nowadays, the rapid development of nanoparticles significantly improves the tumor therapy with enhanced drug transport. This review presents an overview on the state of chitosan-based nanoparticles in the field of intravesical bladder cancer treatment.

Advances in Algin and Alginate-Hybrid Materials for Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering

In this review, we aim to provide a summary of recent research advancements and applications of algin (i.e., alginic acid) and alginate-hybrid materials (AHMs) in medical fields. Algin/alginate are abundant natural products that are chemically inert and biocompatible, and they have superior gelation properties, good mechanical strengths, and biodegradability. The AHMs have been widely applied in wound dressing, cell culture, tissue engineering, and drug delivery. However, medical applications in different fields require different properties in the AHMs. The drug delivery application requires AHMs to provide optimal drug loading, controlled and targeted drug-releasing, and/or visually guided drug delivery. AHMs for wound dressing application need to have improved mechanical properties, hydrophilicity, cell adhesion, and antibacterial properties. AHMs for tissue engineering need improved mechanical properties that match the target organs, superior cell affinity, and cell loading capacity. Various methods to produce AHMs that meet different needs were summarized. Formulations to form AHMs with improved stability, drug/cell-loading capacity, cell adhesion, and mechanical properties are active research areas. This review serves as a road map to provide insights into the strategies to develop AHMs in medical applications.

Nanoparticles Obtained from Zein for Encapsulation of Mesalazine

We encapsulated MSZ in zein nanoparticles (NP-ZN) using a desolvation method followed by drying in a mini spray dryer. These nanoparticles exhibited a size of 266.6 ± 52 nm, IPD of 0.14 ± 1.1 and zeta potential of -36.4 ± 1.5 mV, suggesting colloidal stability. Quantification using HPLC showed a drug-loaded of 43.8 µg/mg. SEM demonstrated a spherical morphology with a size variation from 220 to 400 nm. A FTIR analysis did not show drug spectra in the NPs in relation to the physical mixture, which suggests drug encapsulation without changing its chemical structure. A TGA analysis showed thermal stability up to 300 °C. In vitro release studies demonstrated gastroresistance and a sustained drug release at pH 7.4 (97.67 ± 0.32%) in 120 h. The kinetic model used for the release of MSZ from the NP-ZN in a pH 1.2 medium was the Fickian diffusion, in a pH 6.8 medium it was the Peppas-Sahlin model with the polymeric relaxation mechanism and in a pH 7.4 medium it was the Korsmeyer-Peppas model with the Fickian release mechanism, or "Case I". An in vitro cytotoxicity study in the CT26.WT cell line showed no basal cytotoxicity up to 500 μg/mL. The NP-ZN showed to be a promising vector for the sustained release of MSZ in the colon by oral route.

Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Chitosan-Coated Alginate Microparticles Loaded with Porcine Interleukin-1β: A Potential Protein Adjuvant Delivery System

We previously developed chicken interleukin-1β (IL-1β) mutants as single-dose adjuvants that induce protective immunity when co-administered with an avian vaccine. However, livestock such as pigs may require a vaccine adjuvant delivery system that provides long-lasting protection to reduce the need for successive booster doses. Therefore, we developed chitosan-coated alginate microparticles as a carrier for bovine serum albumin (BSA) or porcine IL-1β (pIL-1β) and assessed their physical, chemical, and biological properties. Electrospraying of the BSA-loaded alginate microparticles (BSA/ALG MPs) resulted in an encapsulation efficiency of 50%, and those MPs were then coated with chitosan (BSA/ALG/CHI MPs). Optical and scanning electron microscopy, zeta potential analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were used to characterize these MPs. The BSA encapsulation parameters were applied to ALG/CHI MPs loaded with pIL-1β, which were not cytotoxic to porcine fibroblasts but had enhanced bio-activity over unencapsulated pIL-1β. The chitosan layer of the BSA/ALG/CHI MPs prevented burst release and facilitated sustained release of pIL-1β for at least 28 days. In conclusion, BSA/ALG/CHI MPs prepared as a carrier for pIL-1β may be used as an adjuvant for the formulation of pig vaccines.

Advances in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: Focus on polysaccharide nanoparticulate drug delivery systems

The complex pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) explains the several hurdles for finding an efficient approach to cure it. Nowadays, therapeutic protocols aim to reduce inflammation during the hot phase or maintain remission during the cold phase. Nonetheless, these drugs suffer from severe side effects or poor efficacy due to low bioavailability in the inflamed region of the intestinal tract. New protocols based on antibodies that target proinflammatory cytokines are clinically relevant. However, besides being expensive, their use is associated with a primary nonresponse or a loss of response following a long administration period. Accordingly, many researchers exploited the physiological changes of the mucosal barrier for designing nanoparticulate drug delivery systems to target inflamed tissues. Others exploited biocompatibility and relative affordability of polysaccharides to test their intrinsic anti-inflammatory and healing properties in IBD models. This critical review updates state of the art on advances in IBD treatment. Data on using polysaccharide nanoparticulate drug delivery systems for IBD treatment are reviewed and discussed.

Alginate-Based Platforms for Cancer-Targeted Drug Delivery

As an acidic, ocean colloid polysaccharide, alginate is both a biopolymer and a polyelectrolyte that is considered to be biocompatible, nontoxic, nonimmunogenic, and biodegradable. A significant number of studies have confirmed the potential use of alginate-based platforms as effective vehicles for drug delivery for cancer-targeted treatment. In this review, the focus is on the formation of alginate-based cancer-targeted delivery systems. Specifically, some general chemical and physical properties of alginate and different types of alginate-based delivery systems are discussed, and various kinds of alginate-based carriers are introduced. Finally, recent innovative strategies to functionalize alginate-based vehicles for cancer targeting are described to highlight research towards the optimization of alginate.

Development and characterization of chitosan nanoparticles containing an indanonic tricyclic spiroisoxazoline derivative using ion-gelation method: an in vitro study

Biodegradable nanoparticulate carriers are potentially applicable compounds in the administration of therapeutic agents and drug delivery. They have received much attention due to their biological characteristics such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and bioadhesive. The objectives of this work are first, investigating the impact of two important parameters (i.e. chitosan or sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) solution concentration and chitosan to TPP mass ratio) on the chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) formation by ionic-gelation method and then, the synthesis and characterization of chitosan-based, biodegradable drug-loaded nanoparticles in the encapsulation of novel 4'-(4-(methylsulfonyl)phenyl)-3'-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-4'H-spiro[indene-2,5'-isoxazol]-1(3H)-one (MTS) indanonic tricyclic spiroisoxazoline, which is a potent anticancer drug. The particle size, shape, zeta potential, drug loading capacity, in vitro release characteristics, and stability of the formulated drug-loaded nanoparticles of the different drug:carrier ratio has been studied. The results indicated that the particle size increased at the higher chitosan or TPP concentration while the mass ratio did not appear to be a significant parameter during the cross-linking process. The particle diameter and zeta potential of CNPs including MTS were approximately in the range of 256-350 nm and 24.08-38.70 mV, respectively. The entrapment efficiency steadily increased with increasing the concentration of the polymer in formulizations. Throughout 24 h, the in vitro release behavior was provided a sustained release from all the drug-loaded formulizations. The optimal formulization of CNPs based on drug content with a drug:carrier ratio of 1:2 did not change appreciably during 60-day storage at either 4 °C or the ambient temperature.

Current Status of Alginate in Drug Delivery

Alginate is one of the natural polymers that are often used in drug- and protein-delivery systems. The use of alginate can provide several advantages including ease of preparation, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and nontoxicity. It can be applied to various routes of drug administration including targeted or localized drug-delivery systems. The development of alginates as a selected polymer in various delivery systems can be adjusted depending on the challenges that must be overcome by drug or proteins or the system itself. The increased effectiveness and safety of sodium alginate in the drug- or protein-delivery system are evidenced by changing the physicochemical characteristics of the drug or proteins. In this review, various routes of alginate-based drug or protein delivery, the effectivity of alginate in the stem cells, and cell encapsulation have been discussed. The recent advances in the in vivo alginate-based drug-delivery systems as well as their toxicities have also been reviewed.

Effect of high-intensity ultrasound treatment in combination with transglutaminase and nanoparticles on structural, mechanical, and physicochemical properties of quinoa proteins/chitosan edible films

The effect of high-intensity ultrasound (US) combined with transglutaminase treatment (TG) and the inclusion of nanoparticles (Np) on the structural, mechanical, barrier, and physicochemical properties of quinoa protein/chitosan composite edible films were evaluated. Structurally it was observed that the maximum temperatures of the thermal degradation increased with the use of combined US and TG treatment, generating films with superior thermal stability. FTIR results showed that in the amide zone I oscillations of the polypeptide structure were related to the stretching vibrations of CO in the US/TG-Np edible film. Which has generally been associated with changes in the structure and formation of covalent bonds by the action of TG. The US improved mechanical properties by increasing the tensile strength (with or without the application of TG). While combining US-TG produced a significant increase in thickness, decrease in elongation percentage, and increase in tensile strength. Which can be attributed to cross-linking produced by TG. Water vapour permeability increased in all cases. In general, the combination of US-TG treatments showed a more pronounced effect on the structure and mechanical properties.

Synthesis, Bioapplications, and Toxicity Evaluation of Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles

The development of advanced nanomaterials and technologies is essential in biomedical engineering to improve the quality of life. Chitosan-based nanomaterials are on the forefront and attract wide interest due to their versatile physicochemical characteristics such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, and non-toxicity, which play a promising role in biological applications. Chitosan and its derivatives are employed in several applications including pharmaceuticals and biomedical engineering. This article presents a comprehensive overview of recent advances in chitosan derivatives and nanoparticle synthesis, as well as emerging applications in medicine, tissue engineering, drug delivery, gene therapy, and cancer therapy. In addition to the applications, we critically review the main concerns and mitigation strategies related to chitosan bactericidal properties, toxicity/safety using tissue cultures and animal models, and also their potential environmental impact. At the end of this review, we also provide some of future directions and conclusions that are important for expanding the field of biomedical applications of the chitosan nanoparticles.