Conformation of sodium cromolyn in aqueous solution using light scattering and magnetic birefringence

Effects of confinement, surface-induced orientations and strain on dynamical behaviors of bacteria in thin liquid crystalline films

We report on the organization and dynamics of bacteria (Proteus mirabilis) dispersed within lyotropic liquid crystal (LC) films confined by pairs of surfaces that induce homeotropic (perpendicular) or hybrid (homeotropic and parallel orientations at each surface) anchoring of the LC. By using motile vegetative bacteria (3 µm in length) and homeotropically aligned LC films with thicknesses that exceed the length of the rod-shaped cells, a key finding reported in this paper is that elastic torques generated by the LC are sufficiently large to overcome wall-induced hydrodynamic torques acting on the cells, thus leading to LC-guided bacterial motion near surfaces that orient LCs. This result extends to bacteria within LC films with hybrid anchoring, and leads to the observation that asymmetric strain within a hybrid aligned LC rectifies motions of motile cells. In contrast, when the LC film thickness is sufficiently small that confinement prevents alignment of the bacteria cells along a homeotropically aligned LC director (achieved using swarm cells of length 10-60 µm), the bacterial cells propel in directions orthogonal to the director, generating transient distortions in the LC that have striking "comet-like" optical signatures. In this limit, for hybrid LC films, we find LC elastic stresses deform the bodies of swarm cells into bent configurations that follow the LC director, thus unmasking a coupling between bacterial shape and LC strain. Overall, these results provide new insight into the influence of surface-oriented LCs on dynamical bacterial behaviors and hint at novel ways to manipulate bacteria using confined LC phases that are not possible in isotropic solutions.

Hierarchical organization in liquid crystal-in-liquid crystal emulsions

We report the formation and characterization of hierarchical ordering in systems comprised of micrometer-sized droplets of thermotropic nematic liquid crystals (LCs) dispersed in continuous nematic phases of a lyotropic chromonic LC (disodium cromoglycate (DSCG)). Significantly, we find the orientations of the two LC phases to be coupled, with nematic droplets of 4'-pentyl-4-cyanobiphenyl (5CB) exhibiting a bipolar configuration with an axis of symmetry aligned orthogonal to the far-field director of the DSCG phase. We determine that this coupling of orientations does not result from either anisometric LC droplet shape or interfacial ionic phenomena but rather is consistent with the influence of van der Waals interactions that arise from the anisotropic polarizabilities of nematic 5CB (Δn = +0.18) and DSCG (Δn = -0.02) phases. We also find that it is possible to rotate and uniformly align the nematic droplets by using a weak magnetic field (B ∼ 0.3 T). An analysis of the dynamics of relaxation of the orientations of the 5CB droplets following removal of the magnetic field reveals the DSCG and 5CB droplets to be coupled by energies of ∼10(4) kT, consistent with a simple theoretical estimate of the influence of anisotropic van der Waals interactions. We also observed the nematic 5CB droplets to form dimers and larger assemblies mediated by the elasticity of the nematic DSCG. Overall, these results reveal that LC-in-LC emulsions define a new class of hierarchically ordered soft matter in which both thermotropic and lyotropic LCs are coupled in their ordering.

Using liquid crystals to reveal how mechanical anisotropy changes interfacial behaviors of motile bacteria

Bacteria often inhabit and exhibit distinct dynamical behaviors at interfaces, but the physical mechanisms by which interfaces cue bacteria are still poorly understood. In this work, we use interfaces formed between coexisting isotropic and liquid crystal (LC) phases to provide insight into how mechanical anisotropy and defects in LC ordering influence fundamental bacterial behaviors. Specifically, we measure the anisotropic elasticity of the LC to change fundamental behaviors of motile, rod-shaped Proteus mirabilis cells (3 μm in length) adsorbed to the LC interface, including the orientation, speed, and direction of motion of the cells (the cells follow the director of the LC at the interface), transient multicellular self-association, and dynamical escape from the interface. In this latter context, we measure motile bacteria to escape from the interfaces preferentially into the isotropic phase, consistent with the predicted effects of an elastic penalty associated with strain of the LC about the bacteria when escape occurs into the nematic phase. We also observe boojums (surface topological defects) present at the interfaces of droplets of nematic LC (tactoids) to play a central role in mediating the escape of motile bacteria from the LC interface. Whereas the bacteria escape the interface of nematic droplets via a mechanism that involved nematic director-guided motion through one of the two boojums, for isotropic droplets in a continuous nematic phase, the elasticity of the LC generally prevented single bacteria from escaping. Instead, assemblies of bacteria piled up at boojums and escape occurred through a cooperative, multicellular phenomenon. Overall, our studies show that the dynamical behaviors of motile bacteria at anisotropic LC interfaces can be understood within a conceptual framework that reflects the interplay of LC elasticity, surface-induced order, and topological defects.

Dynamic self-assembly of motile bacteria in liquid crystals

This paper reports an investigation of dynamical behaviors of motile rod-shaped bacteria within anisotropic viscoelastic environments defined by lyotropic liquid crystals (LCs). In contrast to passive microparticles (including non-motile bacteria) that associate irreversibly in LCs via elasticity-mediated forces, we report that motile Proteus mirabilis bacteria form dynamic and reversible multi-cellular assemblies when dispersed in a lyotropic LC. By measuring the velocity of the bacteria through the LC (8.8 ± 0.2 μm s(-1)) and by characterizing the ordering of the LC about the rod-shaped bacteria (tangential anchoring), we conclude that the reversibility of the inter-bacterial interaction emerges from the interplay of forces generated by the flagella of the bacteria and the elasticity of the LC, both of which are comparable in magnitude (tens of pN) for motile Proteus mirabilis cells. We also measured the dissociation process, which occurs in a direction determined by the LC, to bias the size distribution of multi-cellular bacterial complexes in a population of motile Proteus mirabilis relative to a population of non-motile cells. Overall, these observations and others reported in this paper provide insight into the fundamental dynamic behaviors of bacteria in complex anisotropic environments and suggest that motile bacteria in LCs are an exciting model system for exploration of principles for the design of active materials.

Modification of disodium cromoglycate passage across lung epithelium in vitro via incorporation into polymeric microparticles

Two microparticle systems containing disodium cromoglycate (DSCG) alone or with polyvinyl alcohol (DSCG/PVA) were produced via spray drying and compared in terms of their physicochemical characteristics, aerosol performance and drug uptake across a pulmonary epithelial cell line (Calu-3), cultured under air interface conditions. The particle size distribution of DSCG and DSCG/PVA were similar, of spherical geometry, amorphous and suitable for inhalation purposes. Aerosolisation studies using a modified twin-stage impinger showed the DSCG/PVA to have greater aerosol performance than that of DSCG alone. Aerosol particles of DSCG and DSCG/PVA were deposited onto the surface of the Calu-3 air interface epithelium monolayer and the drug uptake from apical to basal directions measured over time. Drug uptake was measured across a range of doses to allow comparison of equivalent drug and powder mass deposition. Analysis of the data indicated that the percentage cumulative drug uptake was independent of the mass of powder deposited, but dependent on the formulation. Specifically, with the formulation containing DSCG, the diffusion rate was observed to change with respect to time (indicative of a concentration-dependent diffusion process), whilst DSCG/PVA showed a time-independent drug uptake (suggesting a zero-order depot release).

Pretransitional fluctuations in the isotropic phase of a lyotropic chromonic liquid crystal

We have studied isotropic-to-nematic pretransitional fluctuations in an aqueous solution of disodium cromoglycate (cromolyn) by static and dynamic light scattering. Cromolyn is a representative of lyotropic chromonic liquid crystals with building units being elongated rods formed by aggregates of disk-like molecules. By combining light-scattering and viscosity measurements we have determined the correlation length and relaxation time of the orientational order-parameter fluctuations and estimated the size of the cromolyn aggregates. The pretransitional behavior of light scattering does not completely follow the classic Landau-de Gennes model. This feature is most probably associated with the variable length of cromolyn aggregates. We have observed a dramatic increase of the shear viscosity near the transition to the nematic phase, the fact which correlates with the idea of growing supramolecular aggregates. The steep temperature dependence of the viscosity is accompanied by a practically temperature-independent translational diffusion coefficient.

Self-association of cromolyn sodium in aqueous solution characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

The major objective of this study was to investigate and characterize the solution properties of cromolyn sodium (in D(2)O or D(2)O/H(2)O phosphate buffer at pH 7.5) using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The self-association of cromolyn molecules was examined primarily via one-dimensional (1)H and (13)C, and two-dimensional homonuclear NOESY NMR. Significant spectral shifts were observed for a majority of cromolyn (1)H and (13)C resonances, and are attributed to inter-molecular ring-stacking association accompanied by intra-molecular conformational changes. The critical self-association concentration was determined to be 10 mg/mL at pH 7.5 and 25 degrees C by measuring the chemical shift of a specific cromolyn (1)H resonance. The observed magnitude and sign changes of NOESY correlations indicate the formation of cromolyn aggregates with restricted molecular mobility. Mesomorphic liquid crystal formation is suggested by uniformly pronounced line broadening in concentrated cromolyn solutions; the transition concentration was approximately 60 mg/mL at 25 degrees C, which is consistent with literature findings based on other techniques. A stronger tendency toward association was observed at lower temperature but aggregation appeared to be independent of pH. Lastly, it was concluded that self-association of cromolyn is promoted by the presence of monovalent cations as a result of reduced electrostatic repulsive forces.

Absorption of moisture by sodium cromoglycate and mixtures of sodium cromoglycate and lactose

The presence of up to about 15% w/w moisture has little effect on the tensile and shear properties of sodium cromoglycate and of 1:1 mixtures of sodium cromoglycate and lactose. Analysis of their adsorption and desorption isotherms using equations developed by Young and Nelson shows that this is because most of the moisture is absorbed into the interior of the sodium cromoglycate leaving little absorbed moisture on the surfaces of the particles concerned.

Disposition of topically applied sodium cromoglycate in the albino rabbit eye

The influence of pH, tonicity, preservatives, polymers and instilled drop size on the disposition of sodium cromoglycate, an agent used in the prophylaxis of vernal keratoconjunctivitis, in the tear chamber of the albino rabbit eye has been examined. Radiotracer techniques were used throughout. The initial decline in concentration in the tear chamber was found to be unaffected by the presence of preservatives, pH, and tonicity over the ranges studied. However, significant increases in the residence time of sodium cromoglycate in the precorneal area were noted when a smaller instilled drop size was used and when 5% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was added to the aqueous vehicle. Tissue uptake was found to be greatest in the conjunctiva, followed by the cornea, the iris-ciliary body and the aqueous humor. In both the conjunctiva and the cornea, the addition of 5% PVA produced an elevation in the peak concentration of sodium cromoglycate and an increase in the time at which the peak concentration was achieved, indicating improved drug delivery to these sites.

A nuclear magnetic relaxation study of bound water in solutions of disodium cromoglycate

The amount of water bound to disodium cromoglycate (DSCG) in frozen aqueous solutions was determined from the amplitude of the n.m.r. free induction decay. The hydration number was found to be 15 molecules H2O/molecule DSCG of which 6 H2O molecules were less strongly bound than the rest. Proton T1 and T2 relaxation times in non-frozen solutions implied a values of 10(-8) s for the correlation time of the bound water at 291 K. This is consistent with the mobility of DSCG molecules in a smectic mesophase.