Effect of different iron compounds on wheat and gluten-free breads

Recent advances in iron encapsulation and its application in food fortification

Iron (Fe) is an important element for our body since it takes part in a huge variety of metabolic processes. However, the direct incorporation of Fe into food fortification causes a number of problems along with undesirable organoleptic properties. Thus, encapsulation has been suggested to alleviate this problem. This study first sheds more light on the Fe encapsulation strategies and comprehensively explains the results of Fe encapsulation studies in the last decade. Then, the latest attempts to use Fe (in free or encapsulated forms) to fortify foods such as bakery products, dairy products, rice, lipid-containing foods, salt, fruit/vegetable-based products, and infant formula are presented. Double emulsions are highly effective at keeping their Fe content and display encapsulation efficiency (EE) > 88% although it decreases upon storage. The encapsulation by gel beads possesses several advantages including high EE, as well as reduced and great Fe release in gastric and duodenal conditions, respectively. Cereals, particularly bread and wheat, are common staple foods globally; they are very suitable for food fortification by Fe derivatives. Nevertheless, the majority of Fe in flour is available as salts of phytic acid (IP6) and phytates, reducing Fe bioavailability in the human body. The sourdough process degrades IP6 completely while Chorleywood Bread Making Process and conventional processes decrease it by 75% in comparison with whole meal flour.

Comparison of the In Vitro Bioavailability of Selected Minerals from Gluten-Free Breads Enriched with Grains and Synthetic Organic and Non-Organic Compounds

Introduction: Despite the constant efforts of scientists to improve the texture, sensory properties, and nutritional value of gluten-free bread, obtaining high bioavailability of minerals is still a huge challenge. Gluten-free bakery products are characterized by a low bioavailability of minerals. The aim of this study was to design gluten-free bread with high bioavailability of minerals commonly found in deficiencies in people struggling with gluten intolerance. Material and methods: The material consisted of gluten-free breads designed to obtain the highest possible content of minerals in the bread while maintaining a good structure and taste. Results: Higher contents of all the analyzed minerals were obtained in breads with natural and synthetic additives, both in rice and buckwheat bread, compared to basic bread. There was also a higher content of the analyzed minerals in buckwheat bread in comparison to rice bread for each type of additive. Higher bioavailability of iron, copper, calcium, and magnesium was noted in rice bread, while the bioavailability of zinc was higher in buckwheat bread. Conclusion: The additives used increased the bioavailability of the analyzed minerals from the gluten-free breads. The use of various variants of flour (rice, buckwheat) influenced the bioavailability of iron, zinc, copper, calcium, and magnesium. The release of minerals from gluten-free bread depends on the element and added components (seeds or synthetic additives).

Fortification of whole wheat flour with different iron compounds: effect on quality parameters and stability

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of fortification of whole wheat flour with different iron compounds, such as ferrous sulfate (FS), ferrous fumarate (FF), reduced iron (RI), ferric sodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate (NaFeEDTA), microencapsulated ferrous sulfate (FSm) and microencapsulated ferrous fumarate (FFm), on quality parameters: color, titratable acidity, peroxide value (PV) and hexanal values, during 120 days of storage. An iron content of 1.38 mg/100 g was quantified in non-fortified whole wheat flour and after fortification, the iron levels ranged from 4.80 to 6.29 mg/100 g. The fortification of whole wheat flour with different iron compounds showed changes on the quality parameters evaluated during storage with exception of the color. The whole flour acidity was affected mainly by NaFeEDTA. Compounds FS and FFm presented the highest PV in whole flour after 30 days of storage. Whole flours fortified with FS and FSm presented higher hexanal levels after 30 and 90 days of storage, respectively. Whole flours fortified with RI and NaFeEDTA presented more stability on quality parameters evaluated during storage period. Therefore, the different iron compounds, when used on whole wheat flour fortification, affect differently the quality of the product during storage.

Current and Forward-Looking Approaches to Technological and Nutritional Improvements of Gluten-Free Bread with Legume Flours: A Critical Review

The gluten-free market currently offers a range of products which can be safely consumed by patients affected by celiac disease. Nevertheless, challenges for optimal formulation remain on the way in terms of appreciable texture, flavor, and adequate nutritional characteristics. Within that framework, legumes have recently attracted attention among scientists as structure- and texture-forming agents, as source of nutrients and bioactive compounds, and as a low-glycemic-index ingredient. This work aims at providing an updated and comprehensive overview of the advantages and disadvantages in the use of legumes in gluten-free breadmaking. It also shows how legumes can contribute to tackling the main technological, nutritional, and organoleptic challenges. From this critical analysis, it emerged that viscoelastic properties of gluten-free bread batter can be enhanced by the use of carob germ, chickpea, lupin, and soybean. Gluten-free bread organoleptic acceptability can be improved by incorporating leguminous flours, such as carob, chickpea, lupin, and soybean. Moreover, a better nutritional quality of gluten-free bread can be obtained by the addition of chickpea and soybean. Gaps and needs in the use of legumes in gluten-free breadmaking emerged and were gathered together to have a sound basis for future studies. The technological and nutritional potential of sourdough should be more extensively exploited. Moreover, in vitro and in vivo studies should be prompted to understand the health benefits of bread formulated with legumes. A holistic approach, interfacing food science, nutrition, and health might help to have, on the market, products with improved sensory properties and nutritional profile.

Fortification of Wheat Flour and Maize Meal with Different Iron Compounds: Results of a Series of Baking Trials

Background

Wheat and maize flour fortification is a preventive food-based approach to improve the micronutrient status of populations. In 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) released recommendations for such fortification, with guidelines on the addition levels for iron, folic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin A, and zinc at various levels of average daily consumption. Iron is the micronutrient of greatest concern to the food industry, as some believe there may be some adverse interaction(s) in some or all of the finished products produced from wheat flour and maize meal.

Objective

To determine if there were any adverse interactions due to selection of iron compounds and, if differences were noted, to quantify those differences.

Methods

Wheat flour and maize meal were sourced in Kenya, South Africa, and Tanzania, and the iron compound (sodium iron ethylenediaminetetraacetate [NaFeEDTA], ferrous fumarate, or ferrous sulfate) was varied and dosed at rates according to the WHO guidelines for consumption of 75 to 149 g/day of wheat flour and > 300 g/day of maize meal and tested again for 150 to 300 g/day for both. Bread, chapatti, ugali (thick porridge), and uji (thin porridge) were prepared locally and assessed on whether the products were acceptable under industry-approved criteria and whether industry could discern any differences, knowing that differences existed, by academic sensory analysis using a combination of trained and untrained panelists and in direct side-by-side comparison.

Results

Industry (the wheat and maize milling sector) scored the samples as well above the minimal standard, and under academic scrutiny no differences were reported. Side-by-side comparison by the milling industry did indicate some slight differences, mainly with respect to color, although these differences did not correlate with any particular iron compound.

Conclusions

The levels of iron compounds used, in accordance with the WHO guidelines, do not lead to changes in the baking and cooking properties of the wheat flour and maize meal. Respondents trained to measure against a set benchmark and/or discern differences could not consistently replicate perceived difference observations.

Implementing Large-Scale Food Fortification in Ghana: Lessons Learned

Background

Food fortification began in Ghana in 1996 when legislation was passed to enforce the iodization of salt. This paper describes the development of the Ghanaian fortification program and identifies lessons learned in implementing fortification initiatives (universal salt iodization, fortification of vegetable oil and wheat flour) from 1996 to date.

Objective

This paper identifies achievements, challenges, and lessons learned in implementing large scale food fortification in Ghana.

Methodology

Primary data was collected through interviews with key members of the National Food Fortification Alliance (NFFA), implementation staff of the Food Fortification Project, and staff of GAIN. Secondary data was collected through desk review of documentation from the project offices of the National Food Fortification Project and the National Secretariat for the Implementation of the National Salt Iodization in Ghana.

Results

Reduction of the prevalence of goiter has been observed, and coverage of households with adequately iodized salt increased between 1996 and 2006. Two models were designed to increase production of adequately iodized salt: one to procure and distribute potassium iodate (KIO3) locally, and the second, the salt bank cooperative (SBC) model, specifically designed for small-scale artisanal salt farmers. This resulted in the establishment of a centralized potassium iodate procurement and distribution system, tailored to local needs and ensuring competitive and stable prices. The SBC model allowed for nearly 157 MT of adequately iodized salt to be produced in 2011 in a region where adequately iodized salt was initially not available. For vegetable oil fortification, implementing quantitative analysis methods for accurate control of added fortificant proved challenging but was overcome with the use of a rapid test device, confirming that 95% of vegetable oil is adequately fortified in Ghana. However, appropriate compliance with national standards on wheat flour continues to pose challenges due to adverse sensory effects, which have led producers to reduce the dosage of premix in wheat flour.

Conclusions

Challenges to access to premix experienced by small producers can be overcome with a central procurement model in which the distributor leverages the overall volume by tendering for a consolidated order. The SBC model has the potential to be expanded and to considerably increase the coverage of the population consuming iodized salt in Ghana. Successful implementation of the cost-effective iCheck CHROMA rapid test device should be replicated in other countries where quality control of fortified vegetable oil is a challenge, and extended to additional food vehicles, such as wheat flour and salt. Only a reduced impact on iron deficiency in Ghana can be expected, given the low level of fortificant added to the wheat flour. An integrated approach, with complementary programs including additional iron-fortified food vehicles, should be explored to maximize health impact.