Preparation, characterization, and separation mechanism of a dehydroabietic-acid-based shape-selective chromatographic stationary phase1

Chromatographic stationary phases with molecular-shape selectivity are advantageous for the separation and analysis of geometric isomers. Herein, dehydroabietic acid is bonded on the surface of silica microspheres via 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane to form a monolayer dehydroabietic-acid stationary phase (Si-DOMM) with a racket-shaped structure. Various characterization techniques indicate that Si-DOMM is successfully prepared, and the separation performance of a Si-DOMM column is evaluated. The stationary phase has a low silanol activity and metal contamination and a high hydrophobicity and shape selectivity. The resolutions of lycopene, lutein, and capsaicin on the Si-DOMM column confirm that the stationary phase exhibits high shape selectivity. The elution order of n-alkyl benzene on the Si-DOMM column indicates its high hydrophobic selectivity and suggests that the separation is an enthalpy-driven process. Repeatability experiments reveal highly stable preparation processes of the stationary phase and column and indicate that the relative standard deviations of retention time, peak height, and peak area are less than 0.26%, 3.54%, and 3.48%, respectively. Density functional theory calculations using n-alkylbenzenes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, amines, and phenols as model solutes provide an intuitive and quantitative description of the multiple retention mechanisms. The Si-DOMM stationary phase exhibits superior retention and high selectivity for these compounds via multiple interactions. The bonding phase of the monolayer dehydroabietic acid stationary phase with a racket-shaped structure has a unique affinity for benzene, strong shape selectivity, and good separation performance for geometrical isomers with different molecular shapes.

A carbonylative coupling approach to alkyl stationary phases with variable embedded carbamate groups for high-performance liquid chromatography

A highly efficient carbonylative coupling method for the preparation of alkyl stationary phases with variable numbers of carbamate groups was established. The effectiveness of such method was verified through elemental analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and solid-state ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of three as-synthesized stationary phases bearing different alkyl chains and different numbers of carbamate groups (octadecyl/one carbamate group, C18C; docosyl/three carbamate groups, C22C³; triacontyl/two carbamate groups, C30C²). The comparative evaluation of these stationary phases using a great variety of analytes, including three sets of isomers of alkylbenzenes, two sets of standard mixtures of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (SRM 1647e and 869b), nine polychlorinated biphenyls, fiveteen N-substituted ureas, ten sulfonylureas, five xanthines and some other phytonutrients, revealed their remarkable applicability in reversed-phase liquid chromatography. Notably, the intercalated carbamate groups rendered the resultant stationary phases compatible with 100% aqueous mobile phase. The suppression of silanol activity was positively related to the number of polar groups embedded in the bonded selector, and the smallest peak tailing factor (1.14) for amitriptyline was obtained by C22C³. The molecular shape-related selectivity was found to be more closely related to the length of the selector's aliphatic chain, as supported by the lowest α_TBN/BaP value (0.31) by C30C². These carbamate-embedded alkyl stationary phases constituted another class of polar-embedded stationary phases possessing a single type of functional ligand.

Octadecylimidazolium ionic liquids-functionalized carbon dots and their precursor co-immobilized silica as hydrophobic chromatographic stationary phase with enhanced shape selectivity

In this work, 1-vinyl-3-octadecylimidazolium bromide ionic liquids ([C₁₈VIm]Br) and their derived carbon dots (ImC₁₈CDs) were prepared, [C₁₈VIm]Br and ImC₁₈CDs were grafted on the silica to obtain Sil-ImC₁₈ and Sil-ImC₁₈CDs, respectively, and they were also co-grafted on silica which named Sil-ImC₁₈/CDs. Compared with Sil-ImC₁₈ and Sil-ImC₁₈CDs columns, Sil-ImC₁₈/CDs column exhibited enhanced selectivity for separation of tetracyclic/tricyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) isomers, and butylbenzene isomers in reversed-phase liquid chromatography, which may be due to the synergistic effect between ImC₁₈CDs and [C₁₈VIm]Br, the π-π interaction between imidazolium and analytes, etc. Meanwhile, the retention behavior of Sil-ImC₁₈/CDs was further evaluated and compared with the commercial C₁₈ column using different classes of analytes, including standard test mixtures of Tanaka, Engelhardt, SRM869b, SRM870. The results demonstrated that co-grafted column exhibited superior separation performance. And this column was applied to determine the contents of calycosin-7-glucoside, ononin, calycosin and formononetin in the extract of Radix Astragali, which were found that the concentration was 0.25 mg mL^-1, 0.15 mg mL^-1, 0.13 mg mL^-1 and 0.30 mg mL^-1, respectively.

A docosyl-terminated polyamine amphiphile-bonded stationary phase for multimodal separations in liquid chromatography

A convenient synthetic approach to a linear alkyl-polyamine amphiphilic chromatographic selector was proposed. Successive immobilization of the amphiphile onto silica gel afforded a multimodal stationary phase for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The as-prepared silica material was studied comparatively with a conventional octadecyl (C18) and an amide-embedded C18 stationary phase. The new uniform docosyl-triamine tandem was featured by an enhanced shape selectivity towards geometric isomers, and a low silanol activity towards alkaline solutes. The presence of multiple amino groups rendered the new adsorbent operable in different modes, such as hydrophilic interaction and ion-exchange modes. The satisfactory performance of the said stationary phase in separating different classes of analytes, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, flavonoids, tricyclic antidepressants, calcium channel blockers, aromatic acids, inorganic anions, nucleosides and estrogens, revealed its great potential and high adaptability for multipurpose LC utility.

Functionalization using polymer or silane? A practical test method to characterize hydrophilic interaction chromatography phases in terms of their functionalization method

Herein, commercially available columns employed in hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) were characterized by determining their ability to selectively distinguish the minute structural differences between small molecules such as nucleosides and xanthines in complex sample matrices. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the data obtained from structurally similar analytes, and the results showed that HILIC columns could generally be classified into two groups: (i) silane-modified columns that were prepared from either native silica particles or silica particles modified with low-molecular-weight silanes and (ii) polymer-modified columns obtained from silica particles functionalized with organic polymers. These two groups could be further subdivided based on the functionalities attached to the respective stationary phases. These results were confirmed via cluster analysis by preparing a dendrogram using the morphology-based selectivity parameters associated with the respective columns. We were able to determine the selectivity of columns for the OH groups, i.e., α(OH) and the prevailing pH conditions (cation- and anion-exchanging natures) on the surface of the respective stationary phases; α(theobromine/theophylline) was employed to obtain a similar two-dimensional plot. This test scheme, in which five compounds were analyze for each column, was helpful for understanding the impact of factors such as the hydrophilicity, degree of hydration, acidity/basicity, or the weak ion-exchange nature of the respective stationary phases on the separation characteristics of new HILIC stationary phases. The selectivity of columns for the CH₂ group was also examined. The cation-exchange nature of the HILIC columns significantly influenced native silica columns and some polymer-modified columns. Herein, 45 commercially available HILIC columns were classified according to this method, and the results proved useful for understanding distinct separation characteristics of each HILIC column, enabling improved column selection.

Column Characterization and Selection Systems in Reversed-Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) is the most popular chromatographic mode, accounting for more than 90% of all separations. HPLC itself owes its immense popularity to it being relatively simple and inexpensive, with the equipment being reliable and easy to operate. Due to extensive automation, it can be run virtually unattended with multiple samples at various separation conditions, even by relatively low-skilled personnel. Currently, there are >600 RP-HPLC columns available to end users for purchase, some of which exhibit very large differences in selectivity and production quality. Often, two similar RP-HPLC columns are not equally suitable for the requisite separation, and to date, there is no universal RP-HPLC column covering a variety of analytes. This forces analytical laboratories to keep a multitude of diverse columns. Therefore, column selection is a crucial segment of RP-HPLC method development, especially since sample complexity is constantly increasing. Rationally choosing an appropriate column is complicated. In addition to the differences in the primary intermolecular interactions with analytes of the dispersive (London) type, individual columns can also exhibit a unique character owing to specific polar, hydrogen bond, and electron pair donor-acceptor interactions. They can also vary depending on the type of packing, amount and type of residual silanols, "end-capping", bonding density of ligands, and pore size, among others. Consequently, the chromatographic performance of RP-HPLC systems is often considerably altered depending on the selected column. Although a wide spectrum of knowledge is available on this important subject, there is still a lack of a comprehensive review for an objective comparison and/or selection of chromatographic columns. We aim for this review to be a comprehensive, authoritative, critical, and easily readable monograph of the most relevant publications regarding column selection and characterization in RP-HPLC covering the past four decades. Future perspectives, which involve the integration of state-of-the-art molecular simulations (molecular dynamics or Monte Carlo) with minimal experiments, aimed at nearly "experiment-free" column selection methodology, are proposed.

Synthesis and surface modification of mesoporous mcm-41 silica materials

Surface modification offers a great opportunity to adjust both the pore diameter and surface properties of MCM-41 type organic-inorganic hybrid materials which result in materials of improved hydrothermal and mechanical stability. Therefore, MCM-41 silica, surface modified with organic ligands, are promising systems with engineered properties and attractive for advanced applications. In the present study, after optimization of the reaction conditions highly ordered MCM-41 silica spheres with uniform mesopores were prepared by the pseudomorphic transformation route. The effect of functionality and alkyl chain length of the alkyl ligands during surface modification was probed by using butyl and octylsilanes with two different functionalities. Due to steric hindrance, the longer chains are assumed to bind only on the outer silica surface and near the entrance of the pores, while the shorter chains are also able to bind to the interior mesopore walls. The resulting materials were comprehensively characterized before and after surface modification using nitrogen sorption techniques, XRD, SEM, solid-state NMR spectroscopy and FTIR spectroscopy. From chromatographic test measurements it was found that the separation power primarily depends on surface coverage and alkyl chain length. On the basis of the present data, surface modified mesoporous silica of MCM-41 type are very promising candidates for future chromatographic applications.

The challenges of the analysis of basic compounds by high performance liquid chromatography: some possible approaches for improved separations

This review considers some of the difficulties encountered with the analysis of ionised bases using reversed-phase chromatography, such as detrimental interaction with column silanol groups, and overloading which both lead to poor peak shapes. Methods of overcoming these problems in reversed-phase (RP) separations, by judicious selection of the column and mobile phase conditions, are discussed. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography is considered as an alternative method for the separation of some basic compounds.

Thermally induced radical hydrosilylation for synthesis of C18 HPLC phases from highly condensed SiH terminated silica surfaces

Silicon hydride terminated silica surfaces were prepared at high temperatures by a chlorination-reduction sequence. SiH groups are desired for further surface modification as an alternative to the native silanol groups which are unfavorable for RPLC applications. Only few silanol groups remain in these materials and mostly SiH moieties with the highest degree of cross-linking are obtained. The retention properties of basic analytes on the SiH terminated material confirm that the surfaces is mostly free of silanols and that therefore the remaining SiOH groups are bulk species. A reagentless, radical initiated hydrosilylation reaction is introduced for the functionalization of the hydride terminated surface with 1-octadecene. (13)C CP/MAS NMR and DRIFT spectroscopy demonstrate the reaction of the carbon-carbon double bond and the SiH group as well as the linkage of C18 groups to the silica surface. These novel C18 materials show promising performance in RPLC separation, especially for the separation of organic bases.

A visual approach to stationary phase selectivity classification based on the Snyder-Dolan Hydrophobic-Subtraction Model

A novel type of stationary phase selectivity classification "triangle" has been developed based on the Snyder-Dolan (S-D) Hydrophobic-Subtraction Model, wherein the apices of a set of four triangles represent the relative contributions of steric hindrance (chi(S)), hydrogen-bonding acidity (chi(A)), hydrogen-bonding basicity (chi(B)), cation-exchange capacity (chi(C)) to selectivity. We found that "effective selectivity" of a stationary phase is mathematically given by the ratio of system dependent interaction coefficients but not their absolute values. Thus by normalizing the S*, A, B and C terms of the S-D model by H, we were able to obtain four parameters which fully define the chromatographic selectivity of the stationary phases. By examining the parameters in groups of three, we can represent all the result in a set of four "selectivity triangles". The distinctive feature of this approach compared to the S-D phase classification scheme is that it allows the visualization of column selectivity by plotting three-dimensional data in a two-dimensional space. Moreover, it very clearly shows that the RPLC columns thus far characterized cover only a small fraction of separation selectivity space leaving a great deal of room for researchers to develop novel RPC materials. Various applications of these "selectivity triangles" will be discussed in this paper.

Stationary phase characterization and method development

The properties of stationary phases and their characterization methods are reviewed. New and significant developments have occurred in the last few years, and new methods for stationary phase characterization have become available. The characterization methods are discussed, and the differences between the different methods are pointed out. In addition, method development approaches are reviewed, with special emphasis on recent developments that employ multiple parameters in parallel. Also, the renewed interest of temperature as a tool in method development is surveyed.

Description and comparison of chromatographic tests and chemometric methods for packed column classification

The main tests developed in last 20 years to investigate the chromatographic behaviour and the stationary phase properties are described in this paper. These properties are the hydrophobicity, depending on the surface area and the bonding density, the number of accessible residual silanol groups having sometimes different acidity, which can interact with neutral solutes by hydrogen bonds or with the ionic form of basic compounds and the shape or steric selectivity, depending on both the functionality of the silanising agent and the bonding density. Two types of tests are performed, either based on key solutes having well defined properties such as phenol, caffeine, amitriptyline, benzylamine, acenaphtene, o-terphenyl, triphenylene, p-ethylaniline, carotenoid pigments, or on retention models (solvation parameter, hydrophobic subtraction) obtained from the analyses of numerous and varied compounds. Thus, the chromatographic properties are either related to selectivities or retention factors calculated from key solutes, or they are described by interaction coefficients provided by multilinear regression from retention models. Three types of comparison methods are used based on these data. First, simple plots allow the study of differences between the columns as regards to one or two properties. Columns located in the same area of the plot display close properties. Second, chemometric methods such as principal component analysis (PCA) or hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) can be performed to compare columns. In this case, all the studied properties are included in the comparison, done either by data projection to reduce the space in which the information is located (PCA) or by distance calculation and comparison for drawing a classification (HCA). Neighbouring columns are expected to provide identical chromatographic performances. These two chemometric methods can be used together, PCA before HCA. The third way is to calculate a discrimination factor from a reference column, through calculation methods based on the Pythagorean Theorem: the lower this factor, the closer the column properties. Following the presentation of the analytical conditions, the compounds and the data treatments used by the teams working in this field, the pertinence of the different selectivities, i.e. of the different probe solute couples or of the different interaction coefficients, are discussed as regards their discrimination capacity. The accuracy of chemometric treatments in the discrimination of stationary phases having different functionalities (octadecylsiloxane (ODS), cyano, fluorinated, phenyl, polar embedded group or "aqua" type) will be discussed, as well as their performances in the finer ODS discrimination. New two-dimensional plots, from data gained by different studies will be suggested, to improve the classification of stationary phases having different nature of bonded chains.

Chromatographic classification and comparison of commercially available reversed-phase liquid chromatographic columns containing phenyl moieties using principal component analysis

Twenty-one commercially available phenyl type RPLC packing materials have been characterized in terms of their surface coverage, hydrophobic selectivity, shape selectivity, hydrogen bonding capacity, ion exchange capacity at pH 2.7 and 7.6 and aromatic selectivity (i.e. pi-pi interaction). The phases have been compared to their corresponding C-alkyl phases, three pentafluorophenyl phases and a series of experimental phenyl phases of known bonding chemistry. Principal component analysis has been used to provide a graphical comparison of the differences and similarities between the phases. The phase's aromatic selectivity was found to be dependent on the length of the alkyl spacer between the silicon atom and the phenyl ring.