A novel endoscopic technique for long-term patency of cholesterol granulomas of the petrous apex

Septal Nasopharyngeal "Kite Flap" for Long-Term Patency of Petrous Apex Cholesterol Granuloma

Medial petrous apex cholesterol granuloma is a benign lesion which treatment is generally based on a trans-nasal marsupialization. When the artificial ostium is created, it is usually kept open with local flaps, like the septal nasopharyngeal "kite flap", a reliable local vascularized flap. Laryngoscope, 134:2111-2114, 2024.

Cyst-to-Mastoid Antrum Diversion as an Alternate Pathway for Management of Small Symptomatic Petrous Apex Cholesterol Granuloma Without Anteromedial Expansion Using an Extradural Middle Fossa Approach: A Technical Case Report

BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANCE

Cholesterol granuloma (CG) is the most common petrous apex (PA) cystic lesion. Posterolateral expansion of a PA CG (PACG) compresses the internal auditory canal (IAC), leading to vestibulocochlear (VC) and facial nerve dysfunction. Even small, symptomatic PACGs are managed surgically. The preferred strategy is not complete removal, but drainage and aeration. PACG with anteromedial expansion using an endoscopic endonasal approach provides natural drainage into the nasal sinus without risking VC and facial dysfunction. Endoscopic endonasal approach is inappropriate for small PACGs without anteromedial expansion because of potential damage to the petrous internal carotid artery. Small PACGs without anteromedial expansion are managed using extradural middle fossa (EMF) approach, which lacks a natural drainage pathway, thus necessitating an artificial drainage pathway for PACG aeration to prevent recurrence. We introduced EMF approach for CG decompression and cyst-to-mastoid antrum (MA) diversion for managing small, symptomatic PACGs without anteromedial expansion.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

A 48-year-old woman presented with headache, vertigo, tinnitus, and left hemifacial spasm with preserved hearing because of IAC compression caused by a small PACG without anteromedial expansion. Using the EMF approach, the CG and IAC were safely decompressed. Effective and long-standing artificial drainage for CG aeration was established by anterior petrosectomy and silicone tubing from the CG into the MA. Surgery resolved the symptoms, which have not recurred in 3 years.

CONCLUSION

Granuloma decompression and cyst-to-MA diversion using silicone tubing using the EMF approach is a safe and effective surgical management for small, symptomatic PACG without anteromedial expansion.

Typical and Atypical Symptoms of Petrous Apex Cholesterol Granuloma: Association with Radiological Findings

Objective: Petrous apex cholesterol granuloma (PACG) is a lesion that can give rise to different symptoms, and correlations with etiopathology are ambiguous. The aim of this study is to analyze the association between PACG symptoms and radiological findings at presentation, in order to establish a reproduceable pre-operative radiological evaluation and guide the surgical indication. Methods: PACG patients were collected in two tertiary care hospitals. All cases underwent CT/MRI to evaluate the cyst localization and erosion of surrounding structures. Typical and atypical symptoms were then analyzed and compared to radiologic findings established in accordance with the literature. Results: Twenty-nine patients were recruited; the most common symptoms were headache (69%), diplopia (20.7%) and fainting (24.1%), an atypical clinical manifestation related to jugular tubercle involvement. Significant associations between symptoms and radiologic findings were noted in terms of headache and temporal lobe compression (p = 0.04), fainting and jugular tubercle erosion (p < 0.001), vestibular symptoms and internal auditory canal erosion (p = 0.02), facial paresthesia and Meckel’s cave compression (p = 0.03), diplopia and Dorello canal involvement (p = 0.001), and tinnitus and cochlear basal turn erosion (p < 0.001). All patients were treated via an endoscopic−endonasal approach, in which extension was tailored to each case. At a median follow-up of 46 months, 93.1% of patients experienced resolution of symptoms. Conclusions: This clinico-radiological series demonstrates associations between symptoms and anatomical subsites involved with PACG. Hence, it may guide the surgeon at the time of surgical decision, since it asserts that typical and atypical symptoms are actually related to PACG.

ICAR: endoscopic skull-base surgery

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic skull-base surgery (ESBS) is employed in the management of diverse skull-base pathologies. Paralleling the increased utilization of ESBS, the literature in this field has expanded rapidly. However, the rarity of these diseases, the inherent challenges of surgical studies, and the continued learning curve in ESBS have resulted in significant variability in the quality of the literature. To consolidate and critically appraise the available literature, experts in skull-base surgery have produced the International Consensus Statement on Endoscopic Skull-Base Surgery (ICAR:ESBS).

METHODS

Using previously described methodology, topics spanning the breadth of ESBS were identified and assigned a literature review, evidence-based review or evidence-based review with recommendations format. Subsequently, each topic was written and then reviewed by skull-base surgeons in both neurosurgery and otolaryngology. Following this iterative review process, the ICAR:ESBS document was synthesized and reviewed by all authors for consensus.

RESULTS

The ICAR:ESBS document addresses the role of ESBS in primary cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) rhinorrhea, intradural tumors, benign skull-base and orbital pathology, sinonasal malignancies, and clival lesions. Additionally, specific challenges in ESBS including endoscopic reconstruction and complication management were evaluated.

CONCLUSION

A critical review of the literature in ESBS demonstrates at least the equivalency of ESBS with alternative approaches in pathologies such as CSF rhinorrhea and pituitary adenoma as well as improved reconstructive techniques in reducing CSF leaks. Evidence-based recommendations are limited in other pathologies and these significant knowledge gaps call upon the skull-base community to embrace these opportunities and collaboratively address these shortcomings.

Endoscopic Endonasal Transpterygoid Approach Using Pedicled Nasoseptal Flap for Petrous Apex Cholesterol Granuloma With Intraoperative Video

With the development of minimally invasive endoscopic surgery and image-guided navigation systems, the endoscopic endonasal approach to petrous apex lesions has become more favorable. In this case, a petrous apex cholesterol granuloma was successfully treated with an endoscopic endonasal transpterygoid approach. A navigation system was used, and a contralateral nasoseptal flap and silicone tube stent were applied to maintain the cholesterol granuloma drainage pathway. The authors describe the endoscopic endonasal transpterygoid approach using a pedicled nasoseptal flap for petrous apex cholesterol granuloma and provide an intraoperative video and a literature review.

Cholesterol Granulomas: A Comparative Meta-Analysis of Endonasal Endoscopic versus Open Approaches to the Petrous Apex

Petrous apex cholesterol granulomas (PACG) are rare disorders that can lead to patient morbidity and must, occasionally, be drained by either endoscopic endonasal (EN) or open procedures (OP). The objective of our study was to complete a review of the literature to compare the EN and OP approaches on multiple levels, notably on safety and effectiveness. Ovid MEDLINE and Embase were used to perform a thorough literature review of all cases of PACG treated by either EN or OP dating from January 1948 to August 2017. In total, 49 articles were selected including 23 for EN (n=76) and 26 for OP (n=210). Differences were found in the incidence of preoperative hearing loss (HL) (EN 18.4%, OP 57.3%; p<0.001), headache (EN 48.7%, OP 31.2%; p=0.007), and disequilibrium (EN: 14.5%, OP 26.1%; p=0.04). Differences in lesion proximity to the sphenoid sinus (EN 23.6%, OP: 1.0%; p<0.001), clivus (EN 11.8%, OP 4.7%; p=0.03), otic capsule (EN 0.0%, OP 5.2%; p=0.03), internal auditory canal (EN 2.6%, OP 10.9%; p=0.01), and internal carotid artery (ICA) (EN 9.2%, OP 2.8%; p=0.02) were found on preoperative imaging. The EN procedure had better hearing improvement rates (EN 85.7%, OP 23.4%; p<0.001), lower complication rates (EN 7.9%, OP 17.6%; p=0.04), shorter median follow-up (EN:13.5 months, OP:37.2 months; p<0.001), and shorter time to recurrence (EN 3 months, OP 22.6 months; p=0.002) than the known OP. No differences were found in age, preoperative size, recurrence rate, operative time, stent placement, or improvement of other symptoms. Endoscopic nasal approaches, when feasible, should be favored to open procedures for PACG drainage given their better hearing improvement and less complication rates.

Indications and endonasal treatment of petrous apex cholesterol granulomas

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Lesions of the petrous apex of the temporal bone can be challenging to access and approaches laterally through the mastoid as well as medially through an endonasal approach are utilized to access this region while preserving function of adjacent structures. Cholesterol granulomas of the petrous apex requiring surgery are marsupialized to prevent expansion of the inflamed cyst and relieve associated clinical symptoms. The endonasal approach to the petrous apex has in the past been limited to lesions medial to the internal carotid artery.

RECENT FINDINGS

Endoscopic approaches have been developed to expand the range of petrous apex lesions that are accessible endonasally. These endonasal corridors include a nasopharyngeal/transclival corridor, lateralization of the internal carotid artery to create an expanded medial window, a pterygopalatine infrapetrosal approach, and a contralateral maxillary approach, which allow improved access to the inferior and lateral petrous apex. Nasoseptal flaps may reduce the risk of postoperative stenosis of the drainage tract.

SUMMARY

Endoscopic endonasal approaches can be used safely to address both medial and lateral/inferior petrous apex lesions. Morbidity of these procedures is low and use of a nasoseptal flap may limit restenosis of the drainage pathway.

Endoscopic Endonasal Approaches for Treatment of Craniovertebral Junction Tumours

Tumours involving the craniovertebral junction (CVJ) are challenging because of their local invasiveness and high recurrence rates, as well as their proximity to critical neurovascular structures and the difficulty of reconstructing the resulting skull base defect at this site. Several surgical techniques are currently available to access these lesions, including the far lateral, extreme lateral, direct lateral, transcervical, transoral and transnasal approaches. In this paper, application of the endoscopic endonasal approach (EEA) in the treatment of CVJ tumours is analysed. The indications, contraindications, preoperative workup, step-by-step surgical technique, skull base reconstruction options and postoperative management are described. The advantages and limitations of the EEA are also discussed. Finally, a systematic review of the literature is provided to elucidate the levels of evidence supporting the use of the EEA in this field. Employment of this approach to the CVJ has contributed to high success rates in achieving gross total resection of tumours and improvement in neurological symptoms. Intraoperative and postoperative complication rates are acceptable, with cerebrospinal fluid leakage being the major concern (with a 17-25% incidence). Moreover, in comparison with traditional approaches to the CVJ, the EEA provides lower rates of postoperative dysphagia and respiratory complications. Use of the EEA for treatment of CVJ tumours appears to be a rational alternative to the conventional transoral, transcranial and transcervical approaches in selected cases. Multidisciplinary teamwork including different specialists-such as medical and radiation oncologists, radiologists, otorhinolaryngologists and neurosurgeons-is strongly recommended for the purpose of offering the best treatment strategy for the patient.

Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery using pedicle vascularized nasoseptal flap for cholesterol granuloma in petrous apex: A technical note

BACKGROUND

Compared with surgical resection, endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) for cholesterol granuloma (CG) in the petrous apex (PA) is associated with local recurrence due to obstruction of the drainage route. We present a detailed procedure of an endoscopic TSS using pedicle vascularized nasoseptal flap (PVNF).

METHODS

A 40-year-old woman with a history of repeated surgery for left tympanitis was referred to our institution. Neurological examination revealed severe hearing loss in the left ear. Radiologic examination presented a round mass in the left PA and significant fluid collection in the mastoid air cells of the left temporal bone. CG was strongly suspected, and endoscopic TSS using PVNF was performed. Prior to endoscopic drainage, a PVNF was harvested from the mucosa of the ipsilateral nasal septum, with an attempt to preserve the sphenopalatine artery in the flap. Following this, puncture and adequate irrigation of the lesion was performed by endoscopic TSS, with neuro-navigation system assistance; the apex of PVNF was then placed into the lesion to prevent the obstruction of the drainage route. An absorbable polyglycolic acid sheet and fibrin glue were applied on the flap to prevent spontaneous deviation from the lesion.

RESULTS

The patient was discharged without any further neurological complications. Eight-month postoperative computed tomography images showed no recurrence; the drainage route was patent and the fluid collection in the left mastoid air cells was resolved. Moreover, hearing loss was improved.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic TSS using PVNF may be one of available surgical options for PACG.

Endoscopic transsphenoidal anterior petrosal approach for locally aggressive tumors involving the internal auditory canal, jugular fossa, and cavernous sinus

OBJECTIVE Reports about endoscopic endonasal surgery for skull base tumors involving the lateral part of petrous apex remain scarce. The authors present their experience with the endoscopic transsphenoidal anterior petrosal (ETAP) approach through the retrocarotid space for tumors involving the internal auditory canal, jugular fossa, and cavernous sinus. METHODS The authors performed the ETAP approach in 10 patients with 11 tumors (bilateral in 1 patient) that extensively occupied the lateral part of petrous apex, e.g., the internal auditory canal and jugular fossa. Eight patients presented with diplopia (unilateral abducens nerve palsy), 3 with tinnitus, and 1 with unilateral hearing loss with facial palsy. After wide anterior sphenoidotomy, the sellar floor, clival recess, and carotid prominence were verified. Tumors were approached via an anteromedial petrosectomy through the retrocarotid triangular space, defined by the cavernous and vertical segments of the internal carotid artery (ICA), the clivus, and the petrooccipital fissure. The surgical window was easily enlarged by drilling the petrous bone along the petrooccipital fissure. After exposure of the tumor and ICA, dissection and resection of the tumor were mainly performed under direct visualization with 30° and 70° endoscopes. RESULTS Gross-total resection was achieved in 8 patients (9 tumors). In a patient with invasive meningioma, the tumor was strongly adherent to the ICA, necessitating partial resection. Postoperatively, all 8 patients who had presented with abducens nerve palsy preoperatively showed improvement within 6 months. In the patient presenting with hearing loss and facial palsy, the facial palsy completely resolved within 3 months, but hearing loss remained. Regarding complications, 3 patients showed mild and transient abducens nerve palsy resolving within 2 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months. Postoperative CSF rhinorrhea requiring surgical repair was observed in 1 patient. No patient exhibited hearing deterioration, facial palsy, or symptoms of lower cranial nerve palsy after surgery. CONCLUSIONS The ETAP approach can offer a simple, less invasive option for invasive skull base tumors involving petrous regions, including the internal auditory canal, jugular fossa, and cavernous sinus. The ETAP approach can reach more extensive areas in the extradural regions around the petrous bone. The authors' results indicate that the transsphenoidal retrocarotid route is sufficient to approach the petrosal areas in select cases. Further expansion of the surgical field is not always necessary. However, experience with intradural lesions remains limited, and the extent of tumor resection largely depends on tumor characteristics. Application of the ETAP approach should thus be carefully determined in each patient, taking into consideration the size of the retrocarotid window and tumor characteristics.

Endoscopic transnasal external fistulation in recurrent cystic subdiaphragmatic craniopharyngioma: a novel technique

The authors present a technique for the persistent external drainage of intractable subdiaphragmatic cystic recurrences with the creation of a fistula between the cyst wall epithelium and epithelium on the nasal cavity, using a pedicled nasoseptal flap as a conduit. The long-term efficacy of endoscopic transnasal external fistulation (ETEF) in controlling cystic recurrences in this patient group is addressed through a retrospective observational review of 3 male patients aged 8, 22, and 45 years with the diagnosis of recurrent cystic subdiaphragmatic craniopharyngioma who underwent the ETEF procedure between 2006 and 2009. Clinical presentation, neuroimaging, surgical interventions, and follow-up were recorded. The main outcome measure was cyst reaccumulation on MRI. Patients had a mean follow-up of 76 months (range 5-8 years) with no incidence of cystic recurrence. Follow-up imaging revealed sustained cyst involution contrary to the usual recurrent enlargement commonly seen in this patient group. Symptoms of headache and visual field defects improved post-ETEF. Long-term theoretical complications of a persistent fistula such as intracranial abscess, meningitis, or CSF leak were not observed. ETEF promotes nasalization of cystic recurrences in subdiaphragmatic craniopharyngioma. It is safe and effective, causing long-term involution of cysts and can be considered a definitive procedure.

Surgical outcomes after endoscopic management of cholesterol granulomas of the petrous apex: a systematic review

OBJECT

Endoscopic endonasal treatment of petrous apex cholesterol granulomas allows for a natural drainage pathway into the nasopharynx. Because of the limited number of case series in the literature, there is limited evidence of recurrence rates and outcomes following endoscopic endonasal management. The purpose of this study was to determine the surgical outcomes of endoscopic endonasal approaches in the treatment of cholesterol granulomas of the petrous apex.

METHODS

A systematic literature review was performed using PubMed for articles published from January 1980 to April 2014 to identify all studies reporting outcomes for endoscopic endonasal surgical management of cholesterol granulomas of the petrous apex. Operative approach, use of a stent, symptom outcome, restenosis, cyst recurrence, reoperation, and complications were extracted from included studies.

RESULTS

A total of 53 patient cases were included from 22 relevant studies. The mean age was 41 years, and 26 patients (49%) were female. Stents were used in 45.1% of cases. Symptom resolution or improvement was seen in 98.6% of cases at follow-up (mean follow-up 20 months). Complications were reported in 13.2% of cases, with the most common complication being epistaxis. Restenosis on follow-up office endoscopic examination occurred in 9 of 45 cases (20.0%). Only 4 of these restenosis cases resulted in symptomatic cyst recurrence, resulting in an overall recurrence rate of 7.5%. The mean time from surgery to cyst recurrence was 13.5 months. The rate of symptomatic cyst recurrence was 10.7% in cases without the use of a stent compared with 4.3% in cases with stent placement (p = 0.6).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on current literature, endoscopic endonasal approaches result in a high rate of symptom improvement or resolution. Complication rates are lower than prior case series that have utilized open approaches. Asymptomatic restenosis can be managed conservatively, since it is associated with symptomatic cyst recurrence less than half of the time. This study revealed a nonsignificant trend toward a decrease in symptomatic cyst recurrence when a stent was used, but further work is needed to clarify its impact.

Use of the pedicled nasoseptal flap in the endoscopic management of cholesterol granulomas of the petrous apex

BACKGROUND

Nowadays the endoscopic approach represents a useful alternative to traditional surgical approaches in the treatment of cholesterol granulomas (CGs) of the petrous apex (PA). Recently the nasoseptal flap (NSF) has been employed to permit long-term patency of drainage site. The purpose of this study is to report our experience with the NSF in the endoscopic management of CG and to analyze the advantages, limitations, and outcomes of the technique.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was carried out on 10 patients affected by CG of the PA who had been treated endoscopically, using the NSF.

RESULTS

An endoscopic transpterygoid approach was used for 6 patients and the remaining 4 were treated using the transclival approach. A NSF was used in all 10 cases. In 6 cases the flap was ipsilateral to the lesion whereas in 4 it was contralateral. In 90% of our patients no evidence of disease was observed after a mean follow-up period of 35.7 months, with resolution of their symptoms. One patient presented a recurrence because of a technical error (inadequate placement of the flap in the cavity), and has been retreated endoscopically.

CONCLUSION

The pedicled NSF seems to be helpful in avoiding the concentric growth of the granulomatous cyst epithelium while assuring ventilation and drainage of the cyst. However, bigger studies with longer-term follow-up are needed to confirm these findings. Correct and meticulous placement of the flap inside the cystic cavity is the most critical issue for the success of the procedure.

Palatovaginal (pharyngeal) artery: clinical implication and surgical experience

The palatovaginal or pharyngeal artery is a small branch of the internal maxillary artery supplying the nasopharynx. Bleeding from this artery is exceptional and only one case of traumatic epistaxis from this artery has been reported previously. We report a case of a 66-year-old male presenting with right recurrent posterior epistaxis. Endoscopic dissection of the pterygopalatine fossa and direct visualization of the palatosphenoidal canal permitted to identify the origin of bleeding, and coagulation of the pharyngeal artery solved the epistaxis. Although rare, intractable posterior epistaxis may arise from the pharyngeal artery. The anatomical knowledge of this artery and of the palatosphenoidal canal is of outmost importance in endoscopic transpterygoid and nasopharyngeal procedures, to identify the vidian canal, evaluate nasopharyngeal cancer spread in the pterygopalatine fossa, reduce bleeding during surgery of the nasopharynx, and harvest adequately the pedicle of the nasoseptal flap.