Impact of neoadjuvant chemoradiation on the tumor burden before liver transplantation for unresectable cholangiocarcinoma

A systematic review and meta-analysis of pathologic complete response rates for patients with cholangiocarcinoma treated on liver transplant protocols

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Many heterogenous orthotopic liver transplant (OLT) protocols exist for patients with unresectable cholangiocarcinoma. Little is known about the incidence, predictors for, and the significance of achieving a pathologic complete response (pCR).

METHODS

We performed a systematic review through September 2022 of the PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases. A random-effect meta-analysis was conducted to pool data across studies with reported pCR rates. Heterogeneity between treatment protocols was assessed via subgroup analysis. The pCR and 1-, 3-, and 5-year recurrence-free survival (RFS) and overall survival (OS) rates were extracted as outcomes of interest.

RESULTS

A total of 15 studies reported pCR rates and were grouped by use of the Mayo protocol (4/15), stereotactic body radiation therapy (2/15), and an Other category (9/15). The pooled pCR rate among all studies was 32%. Both radiation technique and duration of CHT showed no significant association with pCR (p = 0.05 and 0.13, respectively). Pooled 1-year RFS and OS after any neoadjuvant therapy and OLT was 80% (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.61-0.91), and 91% (95% CI, 0.87-0.94), respectively. There was no 1-year OS difference detected among the three groups. pCR was not associated with OS in the meta-regression. Pooled 3- and 5-year OS among all studies was 72% and 61%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The pooled incidence of pCR was 32%. Differences in radiation technique did not appear to influence pCR rates and upon meta-regression, pCR was not a surrogate marker for survival.

Mechanism of postoperative recurrence and metastasis of intrahepatic cholangiocellular carcinoma and clinical prevention and treatment strategy

Intrahepatic cholangiocellular carcinoma is a primary adenocarcinoma originating from intrahepatic bile duct epithelial cells. The tumor has no capsule. At the early stage of the tumor, there are infiltration and metastasis along the lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, perineural space, and loose fibrous connective tissue, which are characterized by lymph node metastasis. Due to the absence of characteristic clinical manifestations and the lack of specific molecular markers for early diagnosis, the surgical resection rate is low and the postoperative tumor recurrence and metastasis rate is high. Low efficacy of chemoradiotherapy, molecular targeted drugs, and immunotherapy results in the poor prognosis. Further research of molecular pathology, gene function, and imaging technology can help elucidate the occurrence, recurrence, and metastasis mechanism of intrahepatic cholangiocellular carcinoma to improve its early diagnosis rate and precise clinical staging. Individualized precision treatment and prevention for the risk factors to reduce the recurrence and metastasis rate postoperatively are key to improving the patient prognosis.

American Radium Society (ARS) Appropriate Use Criteria (AUC) for Extrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma

Although uncommon, extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (EHCC) is a deadly malignancy, and the treatment approaches remain controversial. While surgery remains the only cure, few patients are candidates for resection up front, and there are high rates of both local and distant failure following resection. Herein, we systematically review the available evidence regarding treatment approaches for patients with EHCC, including surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. The evidence regarding treatment outcomes was assessed using the Population, Intervention, Comparator, Outcome, and Study design (PICOS) framework. A summary of recommendations based on the available literature is outlined for specific clinical scenarios encountered by providers in the clinic to guide the management of these patients.

Neoadjuvant Chemoradiotherapy and Liver Transplantation for Unresectable Hilar Cholangiocarcinoma: The Irish Experience of the Mayo Protocol

BACKGROUND

Pioneered by the Mayo Clinic, multimodal therapy with neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy and orthotopic liver transplant has emerged as a promising option for unresectable hilar cholangiocarcinoma (hCCA). This study reports the experience of the Irish National Liver Transplant Programme with the Mayo Protocol.

METHODS

All patients diagnosed with unresectable hCCA between 2004 and 2016, who were eligible for the treatment protocol, were prospectively studied.

RESULTS

Thirty-seven patients commenced chemoradiotherapy. Of those, 11 were excluded due to disease progression and 26 proceeded to liver transplantation. There were 24 males, the median age was 49, and 88% had underlying primary sclerosing cholangitis. R0 and pathologic complete response rates were 96% and 62%, respectively. Overall median survival was 53 months and 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival was 81%, 69%, and 55%, respectively. The median survival of patients achieving a pathologic complete response was 83.8 months compared with 20.9 months in the group with residual disease (P = 0.036). Six patients (23%) developed disease recurrence. Among the patients who developed metastatic disease during neoadjuvant treatment, median survival was 10.5 months compared with 53 months in patients who proceeded to transplant (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy followed by liver transplantation substantially increases the survival of patients with unresectable hCCA. Achieving a pathologic complete response confers a significant survival benefit.

Liver Transplantation for Cholangiocarcinoma: Insights into the Prognosis and the Evolving Indications

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a rare malignancy of the biliary ducts that can be classified as intrahepatic, perihilar, or distal based on anatomic location. Although surgical resection can be curative, complete excision with negative margins is often difficult to achieve. In patients with unresectable disease, long-term survival is rarely seen with medical therapy alone. A multimodal treatment approach, including liver transplantation (LT) for select patients with unresectable CCA, should be considered.

RECENT FINDINGS

While currently only an approved indication for early, liver-limited, perihilar cholangiocarcinoma, promising results have been achieved for LT in localized intrahepatic disease. The absolute indication for transplant for intrahepatic tumors is currently the subject of multiple investigations. Continued advances in neoadjuvant/adjuvant therapy and better understanding of tumor biology may further augment the number of candidates for surgical therapies, with liver transplant acting as a promising tool to improve patient outcomes. Thorough consideration for any expansion in the indication for liver transplant in malignancy is necessary in order to balance patient outcomes with utilization of the scarce donor organ resources.

Expanding the Surgical Pool for Hepatic Resection to Treat Biliary and Primary Liver Tumors

Surgical management of primary liver and biliary tract tumors has evolved over the past several decades, resulting in improved outcomes in these malignancies with historically poor prognoses. Expansion of patient selection criteria, progress in neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapies, development of techniques to increase future liver remnant, and the select utilization of liver transplantation have all contributed to increasing the patient pool for surgical intervention. Ongoing and future studies need to focus on improving multimodality treatment regimens and further refining the selection criteria for transplantation in order to optimize utilization of limited organ resources.

Downstaging Locally Advanced Cholangiocarcinoma Pre-Liver Transplantation: A Prospective Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) after neoadjuvant therapy (NT) in well-selected patients with unresectable hilar cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) achieves excellent recurrence-free survival. Current criteria for NT-OLT exclude patients with locally advanced hilar and intrahepatic CCA from potential cure. We sought to evaluate the efficacy of NT in downstaging locally advanced CCA, and examine outcomes after OLT.

METHODS

Among 24 patients referred for unresectable hilar and intrahepatic CCA from January 2013 through August 2017, 18 met center-specific inclusion criteria for the NT-OLT treatment protocol: hilar tumor size ≤3.5 cm or intrahepatic ≤8 cm, and regional lymphadenopathy but without distant metastasis. Median follow-up was 22.1 mo from diagnosis.

RESULTS

Of 18 patients who initiated NT, 11 were removed from the protocol due to tumor progression (n = 6) or uncontrolled infection and failure-to-thrive (n = 5). Median NT duration tended to be shorter for patients progressing to dropout than for those surviving to OLT (5.5 versus 13.5 mo, P = 0.109). Among five patients who received OLT, 1-y post-OLT patient survival was 80%: three survive recurrence-free (14.5-29.2 mo post-OLT); one developed an isolated tumor recurrence in a single portacaval lymph node at 12 mo post-OLT; and one experienced non-tumor-related death. All dropout patients died at a median of 14.4 mo after diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first prospective study to show successful NT downstaging of unresectable locally advanced hilar and intrahepatic CCA before OLT. NT-OLT for select patients with locally advanced hilar and intrahepatic CCA achieved acceptable short-term recurrence-free survival.

Current status of liver transplantation for cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is the second most common liver cancer, and it is associated with a poor prognosis. CCA can be divided into intrahepatic, hilar, and distal. Despite the subtype, the median survival is 12-24 months without treatment. Liver transplantation (LT) is recognized worldwide as a curative option for hepatocellular carcinoma. On the other hand, the initial results for LT for CCA were very poor mainly due to a lack of adequate patient selection. In the last 2 decades, improvements have been made in the management of unresectable hilar CCA, and the results of LT after neoadjuvant chemoradiation have been shown to be promising. This has prompted a consideration of hilar CCA as an indication for LT in some centers. Furthermore, some recent research has shown promising results after LT for patients with early stages of intrahepatic CCA. A better understanding of the best tools to prognosticate the outcomes of LT for CCA is still needed. Here, we aimed to review the role of LT for the treatment of patients with perihilar and intrahepatic CCA. Also, we will discuss the most recent advances in the field and the future direction of the management of this disease in an era of transplantation oncology. Liver Transplantation 24 294-303 2018 AASLD.

Con: Liver transplantation for expanded criteria malignant diseases

Organ shortage requires policies and guidelines to aid organ allocation along the principles of urgency or utility. Identifying patients with significant benefit and withholding liver transplantation (LT) from patients too sick for transplantation are ongoing challenges, in particular in patients with malignancies. An arbitrary threshold of >50% 5-year overall survival (OS) is broadly considered a minimum standard for LT. In patients transplanted for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCC), this was only achieved in select cases and when the tumor had a diameter of <2 cm. In patients with extrahepatic and hilar cholangiocarcinoma (CCC), strict selection criteria and combined preoperative radiotherapy/chemotherapy according to the Mayo protocol showed that acceptable longterm results can be achieved in a single high-volume center but are difficult to repeat elsewhere. Furthermore, only rigorously selected patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) meeting the NET Milan criteria adopted by United Network for Organ Sharing can also have >50% 5-year OS. A prospective study in patients with unresectable colorectal cancer metastases in the liver has shown promising OS rates, but further prospective trials are warranted. Current evidence shows that none of the proposed expanded malignant criteria justify deviation of scarce donor organs to patients with hilar CCC, iCC > 2 cm, metastatic NET beyond NET Milan criteria, or metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC) outside clinical trials. Liver Transplantation 24 104-111 2018 AASLD.

Liver transplantation for "very early" intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma: International retrospective study supporting a prospective assessment

The presence of an intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) in a cirrhotic liver is a contraindication for liver transplantation in most centers worldwide. Recent investigations have shown that "very early" iCCA (single tumors ≤2 cm) may have acceptable results after liver transplantation. This study further evaluates this finding in a larger international multicenter cohort. The study group was composed of those patients who were transplanted for hepatocellular carcinoma or decompensated cirrhosis and found to have an iCCA at explant pathology. Patients were divided into those with "very early" iCCA and those with "advanced" disease (single tumor >2 cm or multifocal disease). Between January 2000 and December 2013, 81 patients were found to have an iCCA at explant; 33 had separate nodules of iCCA and hepatocellular carcinoma, and 48 had only iCCA (study group). Within the study group, 15/48 (31%) constituted the "very early" iCCA group and 33/48 (69%) the "advanced" group. There were no significant differences between groups in preoperative characteristics. At explant, the median size of the largest tumor was larger in the "advanced" group (3.1 [2.5-4.4] versus 1.6 [1.5-1.8]). After a median follow-up of 35 (13.5-76.4) months, the 1-year, 3-year, and 5-year cumulative risks of recurrence were, respectively, 7%, 18%, and 18% in the very early iCCA group versus 30%, 47%, and 61% in the advanced iCCA group, P = 0.01. The 1-year, 3-year, and 5-year actuarial survival rates were, respectively, 93%, 84%, and 65% in the very early iCCA group versus 79%, 50%, and 45% in the advanced iCCA group, P = 0.02.

CONCLUSION

Patients with cirrhosis and very early iCCA may become candidates for liver transplantation; a prospective multicenter clinical trial is needed to further confirm these results. (Hepatology 2016;64:1178-1188).

Neoadjuvant chemoradiation followed by orthotopic liver transplantation in cholangiocarcinomas: the emory experience

BACKGROUND

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a bile duct tumor with a grim prognosis. The median survival after radiotherapy of unresectable disease is 9-12 months. The following is a review of our experience with neoadjuvant (NEO) chemoradiation followed by orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) for CCA.

METHODS

Ten patients with CCAs were selected as candidates for NEO-OLT between 2008-2011. Patients with unresectable CCA above the cystic duct without intra or extrahepatic metastases were eligible. Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) patients were included due to their poor resection response. Patients initially received external-beam radiation [via conventional fields or volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT)] plus capecitabine (XEL) or 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), followed by either Iridium(192) (Ir(192)) brachytherapy high dose rate (HDR) or external boost. 5-FU or XEL was administered until OLT. Patients underwent periodic surveillance computed tomography (CT)/MRIs after OLT. Primary endpoints included actuarial rates (AR)/crude rates (CR) of overall survival (OS), and local control (LC) at 6, 12, and 24 months.

RESULTS

Five males and five females were identified. Mean age was 58.3 years (range, 38-71 years). Mean composite radiation dose delivered was 59.0 Gy (range, 54-71.4 Gy). Forty percent of patients had an HDR boost. Fifty percent of patients received XEL during NEO. Two patients were excluded from the analysis as they did not go on to OLT due to metastases (n=1) and death due to GI bleed (n=1). Thirty-eight percent of the OLT patients had a pathological complete response (pCR) after NEO, while 25% required a Whipple due to positive margins. Median follow-up for the OLT group was 23 months (range, 6.5-37 months). Six, twelve, and twenty-four months LC AR was 100%. LC CR was 100% at longest interval (30 months). Six, twelve, and twenty-four months OS AR was 100%, 87.5%, and 87.5%, respectively. Mean OS AR was 30.2 months (95% CI: 22.8-37.7). OS CR was 75% at longest interval (37 months). Post OLT mortality resulted from (I) unknown causes (0.5 months), (II) allograft rejection (27.25 months). Other toxicities included: necrotic myelitis 12/10 months after NEO/OLT (n=1), post NEO biliary stricture requiring new stent (n=1); post Whipple bile leak repair (n=1), and post OLT fistula (n=1), cholangitis (n=1), and wound revision (n=2).

CONCLUSIONS

Our outcomes using NEO-OLT for CCA are promising and comparable to other series. These results further justify (I) use of NEO and (II) prioritization of available transplant livers for CCA management.

Liver transplantation for cholangiocarcinoma: Current status and new insights

Cholangiocarcinoma is a malignant tumor of the biliary system that can be classified into intrahepatic (iCCA), perihiliar (phCCA) and distal. Initial experiences with orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) for patients with iCCA and phCCA had very poor results and this treatment strategy was abandoned. In the last decade, thanks to a strict selection process and a neoadjuvant chemoradiation protocol, the results of OLT for patients with non-resectable phCCA have been shown to be excellent and this strategy has been extended worldwide in selected transplant centers. Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma is a growing disease in most countries and can be diagnosed both in cirrhotic and in non-cirrhotic livers. Even though OLT is contraindicated in most centers, recent investigations analyzing patients that were transplanted with a misdiagnosis of HCC and were found to have an iCCA have shown encouraging results. There is some information suggesting that patients with early stages of the disease could benefit from OLT. In this review we analyze the current state-of-the-art of OLT for cholangiocarcinoma as well as the new insights and future perspectives.

A patient with cholangiocarcinoma demonstrating pathologic complete response to chemotherapy: exploring the role of neoadjuvant therapy in biliary tract cancer

The role of neoadjuvant chemotherapy and/or radiation for localized or potentially resectable cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) has not been well established. We present here the case of a patient with an extrahepatic CCA who achieved a pathologic complete response after undergoing preoperative gemcitabine-based chemotherapy, without sequential or concurrent use of radiation. Further evaluation of neoadjuvant strategies in CCA, including not only combined-modality therapy but also the use of chemotherapy exclusively, is warranted in prospective study design.

Trends in pre-liver transplant screening for cholangiocarcinoma among patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis

BACKGROUND

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is the most common hepatobiliary malignancy complicating primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). Unfortunately, timely diagnosis of CCA in PSC patients remains challenging.

AIM

To investigate the strategies among liver centers regarding pre-transplant screening for CCA in patients with PSC.

METHODS

An online survey was returned from 46 US transplant centers, inquiring on the frequency of screening, the use of specific tests, or tactical approaches to high-grade dysplasia (HGD) or CCA.

RESULTS

Most centers screen their PSC patients for CCA prior to orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) (89%). Serum carbohydrate antigen 19-9 and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography are first-line screening tools (93 and 84% respectively). Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography with biliary brushings is routinely performed in only 30% of the centers. In the case of HGD, 61% would choose close monitoring. In the event of non-resectable CCA, 37% have an OLT protocol, 33% resort to palliative treatment and the remaining 30% make an outside referral. Finally, half the participating centers perform CCA surveillance among their listed PSC patients every 6 months.

CONCLUSION

Screening for CCA among PSC patients prior to OLT varies greatly among centers. Serum carbohydrate antigen 19-9 and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography are widely used. HGD warrants surveillance rather than intervention among most experts. Protocolized chemoradiation followed by OLT has yet to become a widely accepted approach. The very poor survival of PSC patients who develop CCA underlines the importance of an effective and universally accepted screening process that will aid in its earlier detection.

Liver transplantation for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma

The indication of liver transplantation for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) is highly controversial. Initially, liver transplantation was embraced as a promising treatment for ICC, providing both a wider surgical margin and a potential cure for the underlying liver disease. However, the majority of transplant centers have abandoned liver transplantation for ICC due to poor long-term survival and high recurrence rates. Interestingly, these decisions were based on studies with highly inconsistent outcomes due to a limited number of patients, various patient selection criteria, and the use of nonstandardized adjunctive therapy protocols. Indeed, recent studies have revealed that ICC patients with small solitary tumors have excellent long-term survival after liver transplantation. Moreover, as seen in early-stage hilar cholangiocarcinoma, neoadjuvant and adjuvant therapy hold promise for improved long-term survival in patients with locally advanced ICC. As we work to expand treatment options for ICC, further evidence of success in this area is needed in order to justify the use of limited organ resources to treat ICC. Continued efforts to improve diagnosis of ICC, hone patient selection criteria, and implement standardized treatment protocols could provide certain patients with ICC access to potentially life-saving liver transplantation.

Neoadjuvant therapy for downstaging of locally advanced hilar cholangiocarcinoma: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Hilar cholangiocarcinoma is a rare but highly lethal type of cancer. A minority of patients present with resectable disease. Surgery remains the only treatment modality offering a chance of long-term survival. Unresectable patients are typically offered palliative treatment. The aim of this systematic review was to summarize the evidence for neoadjuvant therapy followed by surgical resection in patients presenting with hilar cholangiocarcinoma.

METHODS

Cochrane databases, Medline, PubMed and EMBASE were systematically searched to identify articles describing neoadjuvant therapy and surgical resection or re-assessment of resectability in patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Included were all articles with original research. Study selection and data extraction were performed separately by two reviewers using a standardized protocol.

RESULTS

From 732 articles 8 full text articles and 2 abstracts met the inclusion criteria. The 2 abstracts and 1 full text article were case reports, 3 articles were retrospective and 4 were prospective studies (2 phase I and 2 phase II studies). Photodynamic therapy, chemotherapy and radiation therapy were used in various indications in populations that included patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma, some of which were primarily unresectable. Overall quality of articles was limited.

CONCLUSION

Current evidence suggests that neoadjuvant therapy in patients with unresectable hilar cholangiocarcinoma can be performed safely and in a selected group of patients can lead to subsequent surgical R0 resection. Surgical resection of downstaged patients should be assessed in properly designed phase II studies.

Hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma: an update

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third most common cause of cancer worldwide and is rising in incidence. Ultrasound is the preferred modality for screening high-risk patients for HCC because it detects clinically significant nodules, widespread availability and lower cost. HCC does not require a biopsy for diagnosis if specific imaging criteria are fulfilled. Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) is the most common modality used to treat HCC followed by ablation. Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is increasing in incidence and the second most common primary malignancy of the liver. There is no effective screening strategy for CCA although magnetic resonance imaging and carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA 19-9) are commonly used without proven benefit. Therapy for CCA is challenging and resection, when possible, is the mainstay of therapy. Gemcitabine in combination with cisplatin or biologics may offer a modest survival benefit. Liver transplantation for CCA is associated with reasonable survival in select cases. Molecular diagnostics offer the potential to develop personalized approaches in the management of HCC and CCA.

Liver transplantation for hilar cholangiocarcinoma

The most appropriate treatment for Klatskin tumor (KT) with a curative intention is multimodal therapy based on achieving resection with tumour-free margins (R0 resections) combined with other types of neoadjuvant or adjuvant treatment (the most important factor affecting KT survival is the possibility of R0 resections, achieving 5-year survival rate of 40%-50%). Thirty to forty percent of patients with KT are inoperable and present a 5-year survival rate of 0%. In irresectable non-disseminated KT patients, using liver transplantation without neoadjuvant treatment, the 5-year survival rate increase to 38%, reaching 50% survival in early stage. In selected cases, with liver transplantation and neoadjuvant treatment (chemotherapy and radiotherapy), the actuarial survival rate is 65% at 5 years and 59% at 10 years. In conclusion, correct staging, neoadjuvant treatment, living donor and priority on the liver transplant waiting list may lead to improved results.

Incidentally detected cholangiocarcinoma in an explanted liver with biliary atresia after Kasai operation

This report presents the case of a 30-yr-old woman with BA who developed incidental cholangiocarcinoma following the Kasai operation. She showed progressive liver dysfunction and cirrhosis at the age of 30 yr and underwent LDLT. A 4-cm-diameter liver tumor in the anastomotic site of portoenterostomy was incidentally found as a result of a pathological examination of the explanted native liver. The tumor was pathologically diagnosed to be intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Although cholangiocarcinoma in patients with BA has been previously reported in only three cases, it should be nevertheless always considered in the differential diagnosis of hepatic tumors during a long follow-up course in patients with BA.

Trekking new ground: overcoming medical and social impediments for extended criteria liver transplant recipients

1. There is an increasing recognition that previously marginal candidates for liver transplantation can receive therapies that allow transplant to take place. 2. Coronary artery disease is an increasing co-morbidity in liver transplant candidates. 3. Physio-social issues require written guidelines and patient advocates. 4. Methadone maintenance therapy per se is not a contra-indication to liver transplantation.