1
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Papatheodoridi M, Mazza G, Pinzani M. Regenerative hepatology: In the quest for a modern prometheus? Dig Liver Dis 2020; 52:1106-1114. [PMID: 32868215 DOI: 10.1016/j.dld.2020.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As liver-related morbidity and mortality is rising worldwide and orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) remains the only standard-of-care for end-stage liver disease or acute liver failure, shortage of donor organs is becoming more prominent. Importantly, advances in regenerative Hepatology and liver bioengineering are bringing new hope to the possibility of restoring impaired hepatic functionality in the presence of acute or chronic liver failure. Hepatocyte transplantation and artificial liver-support systems were the first strategies used in regenerative hepatology but have presented various types of efficiency limitations restricting their widespread use. In parallel, liver bioengineering has been a rapidly developing field bringing continuously novel advancements in biomaterials, three dimensional (3D) scaffolds, cell sources and relative methodologies for creating bioengineered liver tissue. The current major task in liver bioengineering is to build small implantable liver mass for treating inherited metabolic disorders, bioengineered bile ducts for congenital biliary defects and large bioengineered liver organs for transplantation, as substitutes to donor-organs, in cases of acute or acute-on-chronic liver failure. This review aims to summarize the state-of-the-art and upcoming technologies of regenerative Hepatology that are emerging as promising alternatives to the current standard-of care in liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Papatheodoridi
- Sheila Sherlock Liver Unit, Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Giuseppe Mazza
- Sheila Sherlock Liver Unit, Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Massimo Pinzani
- Sheila Sherlock Liver Unit, Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
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2
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Nicolas CT, Kaiser RA, Hickey RD, Allen KL, Du Z, VanLith CJ, Guthman RM, Amiot B, Suksanpaisan L, Han B, Francipane MG, Cheikhi A, Jiang H, Bansal A, Pandey MK, Garg I, Lowe V, Bhagwate A, O’Brien D, Kocher JPA, DeGrado TR, Nyberg SL, Lagasse E, Lillegard JB. Ex Vivo Cell Therapy by Ectopic Hepatocyte Transplantation Treats the Porcine Tyrosinemia Model of Acute Liver Failure. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2020; 18:738-750. [PMID: 32913881 PMCID: PMC7452193 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2020.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The effectiveness of cell-based therapies to treat liver failure is often limited by the diseased liver environment. Here, we provide preclinical proof of concept for hepatocyte transplantation into lymph nodes as a cure for liver failure in a large-animal model with hereditary tyrosinemia type 1 (HT1), a metabolic liver disease caused by deficiency of fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (FAH) enzyme. Autologous porcine hepatocytes were transduced ex vivo with a lentiviral vector carrying the pig Fah gene and transplanted into mesenteric lymph nodes. Hepatocytes showed early (6 h) and durable (8 months) engraftment in lymph nodes, with reproduction of vascular and hepatic microarchitecture. Subsequently, hepatocytes migrated to and repopulated the native diseased liver. The corrected cells generated sufficient liver mass to clinically ameliorate the acute liver failure and HT1 disease as early as 97 days post-transplantation. Integration site analysis defined the corrected hepatocytes in the liver as a subpopulation of hepatocytes from lymph nodes, indicating that the lymph nodes served as a source for healthy hepatocytes to repopulate a diseased liver. Therefore, ectopic transplantation of healthy hepatocytes cures this pig model of liver failure and presents a promising approach for the development of cures for liver disease in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara T. Nicolas
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Surgery, University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Robert A. Kaiser
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Children’s Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota, Midwest Fetal Care Center, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | | | - Kari L. Allen
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Zeji Du
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | | | - Rebekah M. Guthman
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Medical College of Wisconsin, Wausau, WI, USA
| | - Bruce Amiot
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | | | - Bing Han
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Maria Giovanna Francipane
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Ri.MED Foundation, Palermo, Italy
| | - Amin Cheikhi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Huailei Jiang
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Aditya Bansal
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Ishan Garg
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Val Lowe
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Aditya Bhagwate
- Department of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Daniel O’Brien
- Department of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Jean-Pierre A. Kocher
- Department of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Scott L. Nyberg
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Eric Lagasse
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Joseph B. Lillegard
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Children’s Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota, Midwest Fetal Care Center, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Pediatric Surgical Associates, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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3
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Fletcher A, Read ML, Thornton CEM, Larner DP, Poole VL, Brookes K, Nieto HR, Alshahrani M, Thompson RJ, Lavery GG, Landa I, Fagin JA, Campbell MJ, Boelaert K, Turnell AS, Smith VE, McCabe CJ. Targeting Novel Sodium Iodide Symporter Interactors ADP-Ribosylation Factor 4 and Valosin-Containing Protein Enhances Radioiodine Uptake. Cancer Res 2019; 80:102-115. [PMID: 31672844 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-19-1957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The sodium iodide symporter (NIS) is required for iodide uptake, which facilitates thyroid hormone biosynthesis. NIS has been exploited for over 75 years in ablative radioiodine (RAI) treatment of thyroid cancer, where its ability to transport radioisotopes depends on its localization to the plasma membrane. The advent of NIS-based in vivo imaging and theranostic strategies in other malignancies and disease modalities has recently increased the clinical importance of NIS. However, NIS trafficking remains ill-defined. Here, we used tandem mass spectrometry followed by coimmunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assays to identify and validate two key nodes-ADP-ribosylation factor 4 (ARF4) and valosin-containing protein (VCP)-controlling NIS trafficking. Using cell-surface biotinylation assays and highly inclined and laminated optical sheet microscopy, we demonstrated that ARF4 enhanced NIS vesicular trafficking from the Golgi to the plasma membrane, whereas VCP-a principal component of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation-governed NIS proteolysis. Gene expression analysis indicated VCP expression was particularly induced in aggressive thyroid cancers and in patients who had poorer outcomes following RAI treatment. Two repurposed FDA-approved VCP inhibitors abrogated VCP-mediated repression of NIS function, resulting in significantly increased NIS at the cell-surface and markedly increased RAI uptake in mouse and human thyroid models. Collectively, these discoveries delineate NIS trafficking and highlight the new possibility of systemically enhancing RAI therapy in patients using FDA-approved drugs. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings show that ARF4 and VCP are involved in NIS trafficking to the plasma membrane and highlight the possible therapeutic role of VCP inhibitors in enhancing radioiodine effectiveness in radioiodine-refractory thyroid cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Fletcher
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Martin L Read
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Caitlin E M Thornton
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Dean P Larner
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Vikki L Poole
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Katie Brookes
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah R Nieto
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Mohammed Alshahrani
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca J Thompson
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth G Lavery
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Iñigo Landa
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - James A Fagin
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Moray J Campbell
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Kristien Boelaert
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew S Turnell
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Vicki E Smith
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher J McCabe
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.
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4
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VanLith CJ, Guthman RM, Nicolas CT, Allen KL, Liu Y, Chilton JA, Tritz ZP, Nyberg SL, Kaiser RA, Lillegard JB, Hickey RD. Ex Vivo Hepatocyte Reprograming Promotes Homology-Directed DNA Repair to Correct Metabolic Disease in Mice After Transplantation. Hepatol Commun 2019; 3:558-573. [PMID: 30976745 PMCID: PMC6442694 DOI: 10.1002/hep4.1315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Ex vivo CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in hepatocytes using homology-directed repair (HDR) is a potential alternative curative therapy to organ transplantation for metabolic liver disease. However, a major limitation of this approach in quiescent adult primary hepatocytes is that nonhomologous end-joining is the predominant DNA repair pathway for double-strand breaks (DSBs). This study explored the hypothesis that ex vivo hepatocyte culture could reprogram hepatocytes to favor HDR after CRISPR/Cas9-mediated DNA DSBs. Quantitative PCR (qPCR), RNA sequencing, and flow cytometry demonstrated that within 24 hours, primary mouse hepatocytes in ex vivo monolayer culture decreased metabolic functions and increased expression of genes related to mitosis progression and HDR. Despite the down-regulation of hepatocyte function genes, hepatocytes cultured for up to 72 hours could robustly engraft in vivo. To assess functionality long-term, primary hepatocytes from a mouse model of hereditary tyrosinemia type 1 bearing a single-point mutation were transduced ex vivo with two adeno-associated viral vectors to deliver the Cas9 nuclease, target guide RNAs, and a 1.2-kb homology template. Adeno-associated viral Cas9 induced robust cutting at the target locus, and, after delivery of the repair template, precise correction of the point mutation occurred by HDR. Edited hepatocytes were transplanted into recipient fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase knockout mice, resulting in engraftment, robust proliferation, and prevention of liver failure. Weight gain and biochemical assessment revealed normalization of metabolic function. Conclusion: The results of this study demonstrate the potential therapeutic effect of ex vivo hepatocyte-directed gene editing after reprogramming to cure metabolic disease in a preclinical model of hereditary tyrosinemia type 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin J. VanLith
- Department of SurgeryMayo ClinicRochesterMN
- Department of Molecular MedicineMayo ClinicRochesterMN
| | - Rebekah M. Guthman
- Department of SurgeryMayo ClinicRochesterMN
- Department of Molecular MedicineMayo ClinicRochesterMN
| | | | | | - Yuanhang Liu
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and InformaticsMayo ClinicRochesterMN
| | | | - Zachariah P. Tritz
- Department of ImmunologyMayo ClinicRochesterMN
- Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical SciencesMayo ClinicRochesterMN
| | - Scott L. Nyberg
- Department of SurgeryMayo ClinicRochesterMN
- William J. von Liebig Center for Transplantation and Clinical RegenerationMayo ClinicRochesterMN
| | - Robert A. Kaiser
- Department of SurgeryMayo ClinicRochesterMN
- Midwest Fetal Care CenterChildren’s Hospital and Clinics of MinnesotaMinneapolisMN
| | - Joseph B. Lillegard
- Department of SurgeryMayo ClinicRochesterMN
- Midwest Fetal Care CenterChildren’s Hospital and Clinics of MinnesotaMinneapolisMN
- Pediatric Surgical AssociatesMinneapolisMN
| | - Raymond D. Hickey
- Department of SurgeryMayo ClinicRochesterMN
- Department of Molecular MedicineMayo ClinicRochesterMN
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5
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Enhanced noninvasive imaging of oncology models using the NIS reporter gene and bioluminescence imaging. Cancer Gene Ther 2019; 27:179-188. [PMID: 30674994 PMCID: PMC7170803 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-019-0081-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Noninvasive bioluminescence imaging (BLI) of luciferase-expressing tumor cells has advanced pre-clinical evaluation of cancer therapies. Yet despite its successes, BLI is limited by poor spatial resolution and signal penetration, making it unusable for deep tissue or large animal imaging and preventing precise anatomical localization or signal quantification. To refine pre-clinical BLI methods and circumvent these limitations, we compared and ultimately combined BLI with tomographic, quantitative imaging of the sodium iodide symporter (NIS). To this end, we generated tumor cell lines expressing luciferase, NIS, or both reporters, and established tumor models in mice. BLI provided sensitive early detection of tumors and relatively easy monitoring of disease progression. However, spatial resolution was poor, and as the tumors grew, deep thoracic tumor signals were massked by overwhelming surface signals from superficial tumors. In contrast, NIS-expressing tumors were readily distinguished and precisely localized at all tissue depths by positron emission tomography (PET) or single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging. Furthermore, radiotracer uptake for each tumor could be quantitated noninvasively. Ultimately, combining BLI and NIS imaging represented a significant enhancement over traditional BLI, providing more information about tumor size and location. This combined imaging approach should facilitate comprehensive evaluation of tumor responses to given therapies.
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6
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Kaiser RA, Mao SA, Glorioso J, Amiot B, Nicolas CT, Allen KL, Du Z, VanLith CJ, Hickey RD, Nyberg SL, Lillegard JB. Lentiviral Vector-mediated Gene Therapy of Hepatocytes Ex Vivo for Autologous Transplantation in Swine. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 30451238 DOI: 10.3791/58399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene therapy is an ideal choice to cure many inborn errors of metabolism of the liver. Ex-vivo, lentiviral vectors have been used successfully in the treatment of many hematopoietic diseases in humans, as their use offers stable transgene expression due to the vector's ability to integrate into the host genome. This method demonstrates the application of ex vivo gene therapy of hepatocytes to a large animal model of hereditary tyrosinemia type I. This process consists of 1) isolation of primary hepatocytes from the autologous donor/recipient animal, 2) ex vivo gene delivery via hepatocyte transduction with a lentiviral vector, and 3) autologous transplant of corrected hepatocytes via portal vein injection. Success of the method generally relies upon efficient and sterile removal of the liver resection, careful handling of the excised specimen for isolation of viable hepatocytes sufficient for re-engrafting, high-percentage transduction of the isolated cells, and aseptic surgical procedures throughout to prevent infection. Technical failure at any of these steps will result in low yield of viable transduced hepatocytes for autologous transplant or infection of the donor/recipient animal. The pig model of human type 1 hereditary tyrosinemia (HT-1) chosen for this approach is uniquely amenable to such a method, as even a small percentage of engraftment of corrected cells will lead to repopulation of the liver with healthy cells based on a powerful selective advantage over native-diseased hepatocytes. Although this growth selection will not be true for all indications, this approach is a foundation for expansion into other indications and allows for manipulation of this environment to address additional diseases, both within the liver and beyond, while controlling for exposure to viral vector and opportunity for off-target toxicity and tumorigenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Kaiser
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic; Midwest Fetal Care Center, Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Zeji Du
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic
| | | | | | | | - Joseph B Lillegard
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic; Midwest Fetal Care Center, Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota; Pediatric Surgical Associates;
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7
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New transgenic NIS reporter rats for longitudinal tracking of fibrogenesis by high-resolution imaging. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14209. [PMID: 30242176 PMCID: PMC6155090 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32442-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibrogenesis is the underlying mechanism of wound healing and repair. Animal models that enable longitudinal monitoring of fibrogenesis are needed to improve traditional tissue analysis post-mortem. Here, we generated transgenic reporter rats expressing the sodium iodide symporter (NIS) driven by the rat collagen type-1 alpha-1 (Col1α1) promoter and demonstrated that fibrogenesis can be visualized over time using SPECT or PET imaging following activation of NIS expression by rotator cuff (RC) injury. Radiotracer uptake was first detected in and around the injury site day 3 following surgery, increasing through day 7–14, and declining by day 21, revealing for the first time, the kinetics of Col1α1 promoter activity in situ. Differences in the intensity and duration of NIS expression/collagen promoter activation between individual RC injured Col1α1-hNIS rats were evident. Dexamethasone treatment delayed time to peak NIS signals, showing that modulation of fibrogenesis by a steroid can be imaged with exquisite sensitivity and resolution in living animals. NIS reporter rats would facilitate studies in physiological wound repair and pathological processes such as fibrosis and the development of anti-fibrotic drugs.
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8
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Nicolas CT, Hickey RD, Allen KL, Du Z, Guthman RM, Kaiser RA, Amiot B, Bansal A, Pandey MK, Suksanpaisan L, DeGrado TR, Nyberg SL, Lillegard JB. Hepatocyte spheroids as an alternative to single cells for transplantation after ex vivo gene therapy in mice and pig models. Surgery 2018; 164:473-481. [PMID: 29884476 PMCID: PMC6573031 DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2018.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Revised: 03/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autologous hepatocyte transplantation after ex vivo gene therapy is an alternative to liver transplantation for metabolic liver disease. Here we evaluate ex vivo gene therapy followed by transplantation of single-cell or spheroid hepatocytes. METHODS Pig and mouse hepatocytes were isolated, labeled with zirconium-89 and returned to the liver as single cells or spheroids. Biodistribution was evaluated through positron emission tomography-computed tomography. Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase-deficient pig hepatocytes were isolated and transduced with a lentiviral vector containing the Fah gene. Animals received portal vein infusion of single-cell or spheroid autologous hepatocytes after ex vivo gene delivery. Portal pressures were measured and ultrasound was used to evaluate for thrombus. Differences in engraftment and expansion of ex vivo corrected single-cell or spheroid hepatocytes were followed through histologic analysis and animals' ability to thrive off 2-(2-nitro-4-trifluoromethylbenzoyl)-1,3-cyclohexanedione. RESULTS Positron emission tomography-computed tomography imaging showed spheroid hepatocytes with increased heterogeneity in biodistribution as compared with single cells, which spread more uniformly throughout the liver. Animals receiving spheroids experienced higher mean changes in portal pressure than animals receiving single cells (P < .01). Additionally, two animals from the spheroid group developed portal vein thrombi that required systemic anticoagulation. Immunohistochemical analysis of spheroid- and single-cell-transplanted animals showed similar engraftment and expansion rates of fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase-positive hepatocytes in the liver, correlating with similar weight stabilization curves. CONCLUSION Ex vivo gene correction of autologous hepatocytes in fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase-deficient pigs can be performed using hepatocyte spheroids or single-cell hepatocytes, with spheroids showing a more heterogeneous distribution within the liver and higher risks for portal vein thrombosis and increased portal pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara T Nicolas
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN; Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raymond D Hickey
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN; Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Kari L Allen
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Zeji Du
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | | | - Robert A Kaiser
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN; Midwest Fetal Care Center, Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Bruce Amiot
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Aditya Bansal
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | | | | | | | | | - Joseph B Lillegard
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN; Midwest Fetal Care Center, Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN; Pediatric Surgical Associates, Minneapolis, MN.
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9
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VanLith C, Guthman R, Nicolas CT, Allen K, Du Z, Joo DJ, Nyberg SL, Lillegard JB, Hickey RD. Curative Ex Vivo Hepatocyte-Directed Gene Editing in a Mouse Model of Hereditary Tyrosinemia Type 1. Hum Gene Ther 2018; 29:1315-1326. [PMID: 29764210 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2017.252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Hereditary tyrosinemia type 1 (HT1) is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by deficiency of fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (FAH). It has been previously shown that ex vivo hepatocyte-directed gene therapy using an integrating lentiviral vector to replace the defective Fah gene can cure liver disease in small- and large-animal models of HT1. This study hypothesized that ex vivo hepatocyte-directed gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9 could be used to correct a mouse model of HT1, in which a single point mutation results in loss of FAH function. To achieve high transduction efficiencies of primary hepatocytes, this study utilized a lentiviral vector (LV) to deliver both the Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 nuclease and target guide RNA (LV-Cas9) and an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector to deliver a 1.2 kb homology template (AAV-HT). Cells were isolated from Fah-/- mice and cultured in the presence of LV and AAV vectors. Transduction of cells with LV-Cas9 induced significant indels at the target locus, and correction of the point mutation in Fah-/- cells ex vivo using AAV-HT was completely dependent on LV-Cas9. Next, hepatocytes transduced ex vivo by LV-Cas9 and AAV-HT were transplanted into syngeneic Fah-/- mice that had undergone a two-thirds partial hepatectomy or sham hepatectomy. Mice were cycled on/off the protective drug 2-(2-nitro-4-trifluoromethylbenzoyl)-1,3-cyclohexanedione (NTBC) to stimulate expansion of corrected cells. All transplanted mice became weight stable off NTBC. However, a significant improvement was observed in weight stability off NTBC in animals that received partial hepatectomy. After 6 months, mice were euthanized, and thorough biochemical and histological examinations were performed. Biochemical markers of liver injury were significantly improved over non-transplanted controls. Histological examination of mice revealed normal tissue architecture, while immunohistochemistry showed robust repopulation of recipient animals with FAH+ cells. In summary, this is the first report of ex vivo hepatocyte-directed gene repair using CRISPR/Cas9 to demonstrate curative therapy in an animal model of liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin VanLith
- 1 Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota.,2 Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Rebekah Guthman
- 1 Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota.,2 Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota
| | | | - Kari Allen
- 1 Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Zeji Du
- 1 Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Dong Jin Joo
- 1 Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota.,3 Department of Surgery, Yonsei University College of Medicine , Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Scott L Nyberg
- 1 Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota.,4 Department of William J. von Liebig Center for Transplantation and Clinical Regeneration, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Joseph B Lillegard
- 1 Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota.,5 Midwest Fetal Care Center, Children's Hospital and Clinics of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota.,6 Pediatric Surgical Associates, Ltd., Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Raymond D Hickey
- 1 Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota.,2 Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic , Rochester, Minnesota
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10
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Hickey RD, Mao SA, Glorioso J, Elgilani F, Amiot B, Chen H, Rinaldo P, Marler R, Jiang H, DeGrado TR, Suksanpaisan L, O'Connor MK, Freeman BL, Ibrahim SH, Peng KW, Harding CO, Ho CS, Grompe M, Ikeda Y, Lillegard JB, Russell SJ, Nyberg SL. Curative ex vivo liver-directed gene therapy in a pig model of hereditary tyrosinemia type 1. Sci Transl Med 2017; 8:349ra99. [PMID: 27464750 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aaf3838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
We tested the hypothesis that ex vivo hepatocyte gene therapy can correct the metabolic disorder in fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase-deficient (Fah(-/-)) pigs, a large animal model of hereditary tyrosinemia type 1 (HT1). Recipient Fah(-/-) pigs underwent partial liver resection and hepatocyte isolation by collagenase digestion. Hepatocytes were transduced with one or both of the lentiviral vectors expressing the therapeutic Fah and the reporter sodium-iodide symporter (Nis) genes under control of the thyroxine-binding globulin promoter. Pigs received autologous transplants of hepatocytes by portal vein infusion. After transplantation, the protective drug 2-(2-nitro-4-trifluoromethylbenzyol)-1,3 cyclohexanedione (NTBC) was withheld from recipient pigs to provide a selective advantage for expansion of corrected FAH(+) cells. Proliferation of transplanted cells, assessed by both immunohistochemistry and noninvasive positron emission tomography imaging of NIS-labeled cells, demonstrated near-complete liver repopulation by gene-corrected cells. Tyrosine and succinylacetone levels improved to within normal range, demonstrating complete correction of tyrosine metabolism. In addition, repopulation of the Fah(-/-) liver with transplanted cells inhibited the onset of severe fibrosis, a characteristic of nontransplanted Fah(-/-) pigs. This study demonstrates correction of disease in a pig model of metabolic liver disease by ex vivo gene therapy. To date, ex vivo gene therapy has only been successful in small animal models. We conclude that further exploration of ex vivo hepatocyte genetic correction is warranted for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond D Hickey
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA. Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
| | - Shennen A Mao
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Jaime Glorioso
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Faysal Elgilani
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Bruce Amiot
- Brami Biomedical Inc., Coon Rapids, MN 55433, USA
| | - Harvey Chen
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Piero Rinaldo
- Division of Laboratory Genetics, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Ronald Marler
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ 85259, USA
| | - Huailei Jiang
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | | | - Lukkana Suksanpaisan
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA. Imanis Life Sciences, Rochester, MN 55902, USA
| | | | - Brittany L Freeman
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Samar H Ibrahim
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Kah Whye Peng
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Cary O Harding
- Department of Molecular and Medical Genetics and Department of Pediatrics, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Chak-Sum Ho
- Histocompatibility Laboratory, Gift of Life Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA
| | - Markus Grompe
- Papé Family Pediatric Research Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Yasuhiro Ikeda
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Joseph B Lillegard
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA. Midwest Fetal Care Center, Children's Hospitals and Clinics of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55404, USA
| | - Stephen J Russell
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Scott L Nyberg
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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11
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Squires JE, Soltys KA, McKiernan P, Squires RH, Strom SC, Fox IJ, Soto-Gutierrez A. Clinical Hepatocyte Transplantation: What Is Next? CURRENT TRANSPLANTATION REPORTS 2017; 4:280-289. [PMID: 29732274 DOI: 10.1007/s40472-017-0165-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Purpose of review Significant recent scientific developments have occurred in the field of liver repopulation and regeneration. While techniques to facilitate liver repopulation with donor hepatocytes and different cell sources have been studied extensively in the laboratory, in recent years clinical hepatocyte transplantation (HT) and liver repopulation trials have demonstrated new disease indications and also immunological challenges that will require the incorporation of a fresh look and new experimental approaches. Recent findings Growth advantage and regenerative stimulus are necessary to allow donor hepatocytes to proliferate. Current research efforts focus on mechanisms of donor hepatocyte expansion in response to liver injury/preconditioning. Moreover, latest clinical evidence shows that important obstacles to HT include optimizing engraftment and limited duration of effectiveness, with hepatocytes being lost to immunological rejection. We will discuss alternatives for cellular rejection monitoring, as well as new modalities to follow cellular graft function and near-to-clinical cell sources. Summary HT partially corrects genetic disorders for a limited period of time and has been associated with reversal of ALF. The main identified obstacles that remain to make HT a curative approach include improving engraftment rates, and methods for monitoring cellular graft function and rejection. This review aims to discuss current state-of-the-art in clinical HT and provide insights into innovative approaches taken to overcome these obstacles.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Squires
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Kyle A Soltys
- Thomas E. Starzl Transplant Institute, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Patrick McKiernan
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Robert H Squires
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Stephen C Strom
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Pathology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ira J Fox
- Department of Surgery, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, and McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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12
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Ravera S, Reyna-Neyra A, Ferrandino G, Amzel LM, Carrasco N. The Sodium/Iodide Symporter (NIS): Molecular Physiology and Preclinical and Clinical Applications. Annu Rev Physiol 2017; 79:261-289. [PMID: 28192058 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-022516-034125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Active iodide (I-) transport in both the thyroid and some extrathyroidal tissues is mediated by the Na+/I- symporter (NIS). In the thyroid, NIS-mediated I- uptake plays a pivotal role in thyroid hormone (TH) biosynthesis. THs are key during embryonic and postembryonic development and critical for cell metabolism at all stages of life. The molecular characterization of NIS in 1996 and the use of radioactive I- isotopes have led to significant advances in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid cancer and provide the molecular basis for studies aimed at extending the use of radioiodide treatment in extrathyroidal malignancies. This review focuses on the most recent findings on I- homeostasis and I- transport deficiency-causing NIS mutations, as well as current knowledge of the structure/function properties of NIS and NIS regulatory mechanisms. We also discuss employing NIS as a reporter gene using viral vectors and stem cells in imaging, diagnostic, and therapeutic procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Ravera
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510;
| | - Andrea Reyna-Neyra
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510;
| | - Giuseppe Ferrandino
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510;
| | - L Mario Amzel
- Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Nancy Carrasco
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510;
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13
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Nicolas CT, Hickey RD, Chen HS, Mao SA, Lopera Higuita M, Wang Y, Nyberg SL. Concise Review: Liver Regenerative Medicine: From Hepatocyte Transplantation to Bioartificial Livers and Bioengineered Grafts. Stem Cells 2017; 35:42-50. [PMID: 27641427 PMCID: PMC5529050 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Donor organ shortage is the main limitation to liver transplantation as a treatment for end-stage liver disease and acute liver failure. Liver regenerative medicine may in the future offer an alternative form of therapy for these diseases, be it through cell transplantation, bioartificial liver (BAL) devices, or bioengineered whole organ liver transplantation. All three strategies have shown promising results in the past decade. However, before they are incorporated into widespread clinical practice, the ideal cell type for each treatment modality must be found, and an adequate amount of metabolically active, functional cells must be able to be produced. Research is ongoing in hepatocyte expansion techniques, use of xenogeneic cells, and differentiation of stem cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs). HLCs are a few steps away from clinical application, but may be very useful in individualized drug development and toxicity testing, as well as disease modeling. Finally, safety concerns including tumorigenicity and xenozoonosis must also be addressed before cell transplantation, BAL devices, and bioengineered livers occupy their clinical niche. This review aims to highlight the most recent advances and provide an updated view of the current state of affairs in the field of liver regenerative medicine. Stem Cells 2017;35:42-50.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara T Nicolas
- William J Von Liebig Transplant Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Raymond D Hickey
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Harvey S Chen
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Shennen A Mao
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Manuela Lopera Higuita
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Yujia Wang
- William J Von Liebig Transplant Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Scott L Nyberg
- William J Von Liebig Transplant Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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14
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Gene Therapy in Tyrosinemia: Potential and Pitfalls. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 959:231-243. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-55780-9_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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15
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Price DN, McBride AA, Anton M, Kusewitt DF, Norenberg JP, MacKenzie DA, Thompson TA, Muttil P. Longitudinal Assessment of Lung Cancer Progression in Mice Using the Sodium Iodide Symporter Reporter Gene and SPECT/CT Imaging. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0169107. [PMID: 28036366 PMCID: PMC5201271 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer has the highest mortality rate of any tissue-specific cancer in both men and women. Research continues to investigate novel drugs and therapies to mitigate poor treatment efficacy, but the lack of a good descriptive lung cancer animal model for preclinical drug evaluation remains an obstacle. Here we describe the development of an orthotopic lung cancer animal model which utilizes the human sodium iodide symporter gene (hNIS; SLC5A5) as an imaging reporter gene for the purpose of non-invasive, longitudinal tumor quantification. hNIS is a glycoprotein that naturally transports iodide (I-) into thyroid cells and has the ability to symport the radiotracer 99mTc-pertechnetate (99mTcO4-). A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells were genetically modified with plasmid or lentiviral vectors to express hNIS. Modified cells were implanted into athymic nude mice to develop two tumor models: a subcutaneous and an orthotopic xenograft tumor model. Tumor progression was longitudinally imaged using SPECT/CT and quantified by SPECT voxel analysis. hNIS expression in lung tumors was analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR. Additionally, hematoxylin and eosin staining and visual inspection of pulmonary tumors was performed. We observed that lentiviral transduction provided enhanced and stable hNIS expression in A549 cells. Furthermore, 99mTcO4- uptake and accumulation was observed within lung tumors allowing for imaging and quantification of tumor mass at two-time points. This study illustrates the development of an orthotopic lung cancer model that can be longitudinally imaged throughout the experimental timeline thus avoiding inter-animal variability and leading to a reduction in total animal numbers. Furthermore, our orthotopic lung cancer animal model is clinically relevant and the genetic modification of cells for SPECT/CT imaging can be translated to other tissue-specific tumor animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique N. Price
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Amber A. McBride
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
- Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Martina Anton
- Institute of Molecular Immunology/Experimental Oncology and Therapy Research, Klinikum rechts der Isar der Technischen Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Donna F. Kusewitt
- Department of Pathology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey P. Norenberg
- New Mexico Center for Isotopes in Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
- University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Debra A. MacKenzie
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Todd A. Thompson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
- University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Pavan Muttil
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
- University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
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16
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Roach DR, Garrett WM, Welch G, Caperna TJ, Talbot NC, Shapiro EM. Magnetic cell labeling of primary and stem cell-derived pig hepatocytes for MRI-based cell tracking of hepatocyte transplantation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0123282. [PMID: 25856627 PMCID: PMC4391930 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0123282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Pig hepatocytes are an important investigational tool for optimizing hepatocyte transplantation schemes in both allogeneic and xenogeneic transplant scenarios. MRI can be used to serially monitor the transplanted cells, but only if the hepatocytes can be labeled with a magnetic particle. In this work, we describe culture conditions for magnetic cell labeling of cells from two different pig hepatocyte cell sources; primary pig hepatocytes (ppHEP) and stem cell-derived hepatocytes (PICM-19FF). The magnetic particle is a micron-sized iron oxide particle (MPIO) that has been extensively studied for magnetic cell labeling for MRI-based cell tracking. ppHEP could endocytose MPIO with labeling percentages as high as 70%, achieving iron content as high as ~55 pg/cell, with >75% viability. PICM-19FF had labeling >97%, achieving iron content ~38 pg/cell, with viability >99%. Extensive morphological and functional assays indicated that magnetic cell labeling was benign to the cells. The results encourage the use of MRI-based cell tracking for the development and clinical use of hepatocyte transplantation methodologies. Further, these results generally highlight the importance of functional cell assays in the evaluation of contrast agent biocompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dwayne R. Roach
- Molecular and Cellular Imaging Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Wesley M. Garrett
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Glenn Welch
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Thomas J. Caperna
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Neil C. Talbot
- Animal Biosciences and Biotechnology Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Erik M. Shapiro
- Molecular and Cellular Imaging Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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