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Chin CDW, Treadwell LJ, Wiley JB. Microwave Synthetic Routes for Shape-Controlled Catalyst Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites. Molecules 2021; 26:3647. [PMID: 34203788 PMCID: PMC8232652 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26123647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of microwave irradiation for the synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials has recently become a widespread area of research that continues to expand in scope and specialization. The growing demand for nanoscale materials with composition and morphology tailored to specific applications requires the development of facile, repeatable, and scalable synthetic routes that offer a high degree of control over the reaction environment. Microwave irradiation provides unique advantages for developing such routes through its direct interaction with active reaction species, which promotes homogeneous heat distribution, increased reaction rates, greater product quality and yield, and use of mild reaction conditions. Many catalytic nanomaterials such as noble metal nanoparticles and intricate nanocomposites have very limited synthetic routes due to their extreme temperature sensitivity and difficulty achieving homogeneous growth. This work presents recent advances in the use of MW irradiation methods to produce high-quality nanoscale composites with controlled size, morphology, and architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Davis-Wheeler Chin
- Department of Chemistry and Advanced Materials Research Institute, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA;
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, 1001 University Blvd. SE, Suite 100, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA;
| | - LaRico J. Treadwell
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, 1001 University Blvd. SE, Suite 100, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA;
| | - John B. Wiley
- Department of Chemistry and Advanced Materials Research Institute, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA;
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2
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Sun J, Vanloon J, Yan H. Influence of microwave irradiation on DNA hybridization and polymerase reactions. Tetrahedron Lett 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2019.151060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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3
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Mazinani SA, Noaman N, Pergande MR, Cologna S, Coorssen J, Yan H. Exposure to microwave irradiation at constant culture temperature slows the growth of Escherichia coliDE3 cells, leading to modified proteomic profiles. RSC Adv 2019; 9:11810-11817. [PMID: 35517035 PMCID: PMC9063421 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra00617f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
E. coligrowth is slowed by exposure to non-lethal microwave irradiation, accompanied by changes in proteomic profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Atrin Mazinani
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Biotechnology
- Brock University
- Ontario
- Canada
| | - Nour Noaman
- Department of Applied Health Sciences
- Department of Biological Sciences
- Brock University
- Ontario
- Canada
| | | | | | - Jens Coorssen
- Department of Applied Health Sciences
- Department of Biological Sciences
- Brock University
- Ontario
- Canada
| | - Hongbin Yan
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for Biotechnology
- Brock University
- Ontario
- Canada
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4
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Kappe CO. My Twenty Years in Microwave Chemistry: From Kitchen Ovens to Microwaves that aren't Microwaves. CHEM REC 2019; 19:15-39. [PMID: 29905399 PMCID: PMC6391988 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.201800045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
This Personal Account describes the author's involvement in the field of microwave-assisted organic synthesis (MAOS) from the late 1990's starting out with kitchen microwave ovens right through to the development of a reactor in 2016 that - although not using microwave technology - in many ways mimics the performance of a modern laboratory microwave. The reader is taken along a journey that has spanned two decades of intense research on various aspects of microwave chemistry, and, at the same time, was intimately linked to key innovations regarding equipment design and development. A "behind the scenes" approach is taken in this article to share - from a very personal point of view - how specific projects and research ideas were conceived and developed in my research group, and how in general the field of microwave chemistry has progressed in the last two decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Oliver Kappe
- Institute of ChemistryUniversity of GrazHeinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 GrazAustria
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5
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Obermayer D, Znidar D, Glotz G, Stadler A, Dallinger D, Kappe CO. Design and Performance Validation of a Conductively Heated Sealed-Vessel Reactor for Organic Synthesis. J Org Chem 2016; 81:11788-11801. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.6b02242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Obermayer
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Desiree Znidar
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Gabriel Glotz
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Alexander Stadler
- Department
of Analytical and Synthetic Chemistry, Anton Paar GmbH, Anton-Paar-Strasse
20, 8054 Graz, Austria
| | - Doris Dallinger
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - C. Oliver Kappe
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Graz, NAWI Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz, Austria
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Hayden S, Glasnov T, Kappe CO. Nafion-H-Catalyzed High-Temperature/High-Pressure Synthesis of a Triarylmethane in Continuous-Flow Mode. Chem Eng Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ceat.201400581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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7
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Moghaddam MM, Pieber B, Glasnov T, Kappe CO. Immobilized iron oxide nanoparticles as stable and reusable catalysts for hydrazine-mediated nitro reductions in continuous flow. CHEMSUSCHEM 2014; 7:3122-31. [PMID: 25209099 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201402455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
An experimentally easy to perform method for the generation of alumina-supported Fe3O4 nanoparticles [(6±1) nm size, 0.67 wt %]and the use of this material in hydrazine-mediated heterogeneously catalyzed reductions of nitroarenes to anilines under batch and continuous-flow conditions is presented. The bench-stable, reusable nano-Fe3O4@Al2O3 catalyst can selectively reduce functionalized nitroarenes at 1 mol % catalyst loading by using a 20 mol % excess of hydrazine hydrate in an elevated temperature regime (150 °C, reaction time 2-6 min in batch). For continuous-flow processing, the catalyst material is packed into dedicated cartridges and used in a commercially available high-temperature/-pressure flow device. In continuous mode, reaction times can be reduced to less than 1 min at 150 °C (30 bar back pressure) in a highly intensified process. The nano-Fe3O4@Al2O3 catalyst demonstrated stable reduction of nitrobenzene (0.5 M in MeOH) for more than 10 h on stream at a productivity of 30 mmol h(-1) (0.72 mol per day). Importantly, virtually no leaching of the catalytically active material could be observed by inductively coupled plasma MS monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Mirhosseini Moghaddam
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Flow Chemistry (CDLFC) and Institute of Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, 8010 Graz (Austria)
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Hayden S, Studentschnig AFH, Schober S, Kappe CO. A Critical Investigation on the Occurrence of Microwave Effects in Emulsion Polymerizations. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201400279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Hayden
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry and Institute of Chemistry; University of Graz, NAWI Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 A-8010 Graz Austria
| | | | - Sigurd Schober
- Institute of Chemistry; University of Graz, NAWI Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 A-8010 Graz Austria
| | - C. Oliver Kappe
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry and Institute of Chemistry; University of Graz, NAWI Graz; Heinrichstrasse 28 A-8010 Graz Austria
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9
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Gawande MB, Shelke SN, Zboril R, Varma RS. Microwave-assisted chemistry: synthetic applications for rapid assembly of nanomaterials and organics. Acc Chem Res 2014; 47:1338-48. [PMID: 24666323 DOI: 10.1021/ar400309b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 317] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The magic of microwave (MW) heating technique, termed the Bunsen burner of the 21st century, has emerged as a valuable alternative in the synthesis of organic compounds, polymers, inorganic materials, and nanomaterials. Important innovations in MW-assisted chemistry now enable chemists to prepare catalytic materials or nanomaterials and desired organic molecules, selectively, in almost quantitative yields and with greater precision than using conventional heating. By controlling the specific MW parameters (temperature, pressure, and ramping of temperature) and choice of solvents, researchers can now move into the next generation of advanced nanomaterial design and development. Microwave-assisted chemical reactions are now well-established practices in the laboratory setting although some controversy lingers as to how MW irradiation is able to enhance or influence the outcome of chemical reactions. Much of the discussion has focused on whether the observed effects can, in all instances, be rationalized by purely thermal Arrhenius-based phenomena (thermal microwave effects), that is, the importance of the rapid heating and high bulk reaction temperatures that are achievable using MW dielectric heating in sealed reaction vessels, or whether these observations can be explained by so-called "nonthermal" or "specific microwave" effects. In recent years, innovative and significant advances have occurred in MW hardware development to help delineate MW effects, especially the use of silicon carbide (SiC) reaction vessels and the accurate measurement of temperature using fiber optic (FO) temperature probes. SiC reactors appear to be good alternatives to MW transparent borosilicate glass, because of their high microwave absorptivity, and as such they serve as valuable tools to demystify the claimed magical MW effects. This enables one to evaluate the influence of the electromagnetic field on the specific chemical reactions, under truly identical conventional heating conditions, wherein temperature is measured accurately by fiber optic (FO) probe. This Account describes the current status of MW-assisted synthesis highlighting the introduction of various prototypes of equipment, classes of organic reactions pursued using nanomaterials, and the synthesis of unique and multifunctional nanomaterials; the ensuing nanomaterials possess zero-dimensional to three-dimensional shapes, such as spherical, hexagonal, nanoprisms, star shapes, and nanorods. The synthesis of well-defined nanomaterials and nanocatalysts is an integral part of nanotechnology and catalysis science, because it is imperative to control their size, shape, and compositional engineering for unique deployment in the field of nanocatalysis and organic synthesis. MW-assisted methods have been employed for the convenient and reproducible synthesis of well-defined noble and transition core-shell metallic nanoparticles with tunable shell thicknesses. Some of the distinctive attributes of MW-selective heating in the synthesis and applications of magnetic nanocatalysts in organic synthesis under benign reaction conditions are highlighted. Sustainable nanomaterials and their applications in benign media are an ideal blend for the development of greener methodologies in organic synthesis; MW heating provides superb value to the overall sustainable process development via process intensification including the flow systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj B. Gawande
- Regional Centre
of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Faculty of Science, Department
of Physical Chemistry, Palacky University, Slechtitelu 11, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Sharad N. Shelke
- Department of Chemistry, S.S.G.M. College, Kopargaon, Dist-Ahmednagar (MH) 423601, India
| | - Radek Zboril
- Regional Centre
of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Faculty of Science, Department
of Physical Chemistry, Palacky University, Slechtitelu 11, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Rajender S. Varma
- Sustainable Technology Division, National
Risk Management Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, MS 443, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, United States
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Moghaddam MM, Kappe CO. A Critical Investigation on the Existence of Selective Microwave Absorption in the Synthesis of CdSe Quantum Dots. Aust J Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1071/ch14071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The existence of selective microwave absorption phenomena in the synthesis of CdSe quantum dots has been investigated. These types of microwave effects involving selective microwave absorption by specific reagents have recently been proposed in the microwave-assisted synthesis of various nanoparticles. In the present study, the microwave synthesis of CdSe quantum dots was investigated according to a protocol published by Washington and Strouse to clarify the presence of selective microwave heating. Importantly, control experiments involving conventional conductive heating were executed under otherwise (except for the heating mode) identical conditions, ensuring the same heating and cooling profiles, stirring rates, and reactor geometries. Comparison of powder X-ray diffraction, UV-vis, photoluminescence, and transmission electron microscopy data of the obtained CdSe quantum dots reveals that identical types of nanoparticles are obtained independently of the heating mode. Therefore, no evidence for a selective microwave absorption phenomenon could be obtained.
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11
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Kappe CO. How to measure reaction temperature in microwave-heated transformations. Chem Soc Rev 2013; 42:4977-90. [PMID: 23443140 DOI: 10.1039/c3cs00010a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
High-speed microwave chemistry has attracted considerable attention in the past two decades with new and innovative applications in organic and peptide synthesis, polymer chemistry, material sciences, nanotechnology and biochemical processes continuously being reported in the literature. In particular the introduction of benchtop single-mode microwave reactors just over ten years ago has revolutionized the way many scientists today perform reactions in the laboratory. Unfortunately, the accurate measurement of reaction temperature in these devices is far from being trivial and requires both a basic understanding of microwave dielectric heating effects and use of appropriate temperature monitoring devices. In this tutorial review frequently occurring problems in the determination of accurate reaction temperatures in single-mode microwave reactors are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Oliver Kappe
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry and Institute of Chemistry, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
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12
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Obermayer D, Damm M, Kappe CO. Simulating Microwave Chemistry in a Resistance-Heated Autoclave Made of Semiconducting Silicon Carbide Ceramic. Chemistry 2013; 19:15827-30. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201303638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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13
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Cantillo D, Kappe CO. Direct Preparation of Nitriles from Carboxylic Acids in Continuous Flow. J Org Chem 2013; 78:10567-71. [DOI: 10.1021/jo401945r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David Cantillo
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - C. Oliver Kappe
- Institute
of Chemistry, University of Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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14
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Kappe CO. Unraveling the mysteries of microwave chemistry using silicon carbide reactor technology. Acc Chem Res 2013; 46:1579-87. [PMID: 23463987 DOI: 10.1021/ar300318c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In the past few years, the use of microwave energy to heat chemical reactions has become an increasingly popular theme in the scientific community. This nonclassical heating technique has slowly progressed from a laboratory curiosity to an established method commonly used both in academia and in industry. Because of its efficiency, microwave heating dramatically reduces reaction times (from days and hours to minutes and seconds) and improves product purities or material properties among other advantages. Since the early days of microwave chemistry, researchers have observed rate-accelerations and, in some cases, altered product distributions as compared with reactions carried out using classical oil-bath heating. As a result, researchers have speculated that so-called specific or nonthermal microwave effects could be responsible for these differences. Much of the debate has centered on the question of whether the electromagnetic field can exert a direct influence on a chemical transformation outside of the simple macroscopic change in bulk reaction temperature. In 2009, our group developed a relatively simple "trick" that allows us to rapidly evaluate whether an observed effect seen in a microwave-assisted reaction results from a purely thermal phenomenon, or involves specific or nonthermal microwave effects. We use a microwave reaction vessel made from silicon carbide (SiC) ceramic. Because of its high microwave absorptivity, the vessel shields its contents from the electromagnetic field. As a result, we can easily mimic a conventionally heated autoclave experiment inside a microwave reactor under carefully controlled reaction conditions. The switch from an almost microwave transparent glass (Pyrex) to a strongly microwave absorbing SiC reaction vial under otherwise identical reaction conditions (temperature profiles, pressure, stirring speed) then allows us to carefully evaluate the influence of the electromagnetic field on the particular chemical transformation. Over the past five years we have subjected a wide variety of chemical transformations, including organic reactions, preparations of inorganic nanoparticles, and the hydrolysis of proteins, to the "SiC test." In nearly all of the studied examples, we obtained identical results from reactions carried out in Pyrex vials and those carried out in SiC vials. The data obtained from these investigations confirm that in the overwhelming majority of cases a bulk temperature phenomenon drives the enhancements in microwave chemistry and that the electromagnetic field has no direct influence on the reaction pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Oliver Kappe
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry (CDLMC) and Institute of Chemistry, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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15
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Damm M, Gutmann B, Kappe CO. Continuous-flow synthesis of adipic acid from cyclohexene using hydrogen peroxide in high-temperature explosive regimes. CHEMSUSCHEM 2013; 6:978-982. [PMID: 23592635 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201300197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Safe only in a microreactor! The synthesis of adipic acid from cyclohexene by tungstic acid-catalyzed oxidation using hydrogen peroxide following the classical Noyori protocol can be accomplished in good yields with residence times as short as 20 min at 140 °C using a safe and scalable microreactor environment. Under these intensified conditions the use of a phase-transfer catalyst is not required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Damm
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry (CDLMC) and Institute of Chemistry, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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Ley SV, Ingham RJ, O'Brien M, Browne DL. Camera-enabled techniques for organic synthesis. Beilstein J Org Chem 2013; 9:1051-72. [PMID: 23766820 PMCID: PMC3678607 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.9.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A great deal of time is spent within synthetic chemistry laboratories on non-value-adding activities such as sample preparation and work-up operations, and labour intensive activities such as extended periods of continued data collection. Using digital cameras connected to computer vision algorithms, camera-enabled apparatus can perform some of these processes in an automated fashion, allowing skilled chemists to spend their time more productively. In this review we describe recent advances in this field of chemical synthesis and discuss how they will lead to advanced synthesis laboratories of the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven V Ley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
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Cantillo D, Moghaddam MM, Kappe CO. Hydrazine-mediated Reduction of Nitro and Azide Functionalities Catalyzed by Highly Active and Reusable Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanocrystals. J Org Chem 2013; 78:4530-42. [DOI: 10.1021/jo400556g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Cantillo
- Christian Doppler
Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry
(CDLMC) and Institute of Chemistry, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Mojtaba Mirhosseini Moghaddam
- Christian Doppler
Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry
(CDLMC) and Institute of Chemistry, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - C. Oliver Kappe
- Christian Doppler
Laboratory for Microwave Chemistry
(CDLMC) and Institute of Chemistry, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Heinrichstrasse 28, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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18
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Obermayer D, Damm M, Kappe CO. Design and evaluation of improved magnetic stir bars for single-mode microwave reactors. Org Biomol Chem 2013; 11:4949-56. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ob40790j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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