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Zhao M, Wu J, Zeng F, Dong Z, Shen X, Hua Z, Liu G. Wetting-enhanced adhesion of photo-polymerized supramolecular adhesives for both smooth and rough surfaces. Chem Sci 2024; 15:6445-6453. [PMID: 38699279 PMCID: PMC11062117 DOI: 10.1039/d4sc01188k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Efficient interactions between an adhesive and a substrate surface at the molecular level are the basis for the formation of robust adhesion, which substantially relies on interfacial wetting. However, strong adhesives usually improve cohesion but compromise interfacial properties. Herein, we have reported a kind of robust supramolecular adhesive based on the outstanding mobility and interfacial wettability of adhesive precursors. In situ fast photopolymerization endows supramolecular adhesives with more outstanding adhesion for both smooth and rough surfaces in air and underwater in contrast to their counterparts from thermal polymerization. In addition to their low viscosity and high monomer concentration, supramolecular adhesive precursors without any organic solvents possess well-defined hydrogen bonding interactions. These superior properties consistently contribute to the wetting of the substrate and the formation of adhesive polymers with high molecular weights. This work highlights that enhancing interfacial wetting between an adhesive and a substrate is a promising route to achieving robust adhesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyuan Zhao
- Department of Chemical Physics, Key Laboratory of Surface and Interface Chemistry and Energy Catalysis of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui 230026 China
| | - Jiang Wu
- Department of Chemical Physics, Key Laboratory of Surface and Interface Chemistry and Energy Catalysis of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui 230026 China
| | - Fanxuan Zeng
- Department of Chemical Physics, Key Laboratory of Surface and Interface Chemistry and Energy Catalysis of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui 230026 China
| | - Zhi Dong
- Department of Chemical Physics, Key Laboratory of Surface and Interface Chemistry and Energy Catalysis of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui 230026 China
| | - Xinyi Shen
- Department of Chemical Physics, Key Laboratory of Surface and Interface Chemistry and Energy Catalysis of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui 230026 China
| | - Zan Hua
- The Key Laboratory of Functional Molecular Solids, Ministry of Education, Department of Materials Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, Anhui Normal University Wuhu Anhui 214002 China
| | - Guangming Liu
- Department of Chemical Physics, Key Laboratory of Surface and Interface Chemistry and Energy Catalysis of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China Hefei Anhui 230026 China
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2
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Li F, Gu W, Gao Q, Tan Y, Li C, Sonne C, Li J, Kim KH. Scalable Underwater Adhesives with High-Strength, Long-Term, and Harsh-Environment Adhesion Enabled by Heterocyclic Chemistry. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:37925-37935. [PMID: 37493476 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c07112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Developing scalable and high-performance underwater adhesives is important in various biomedical and industrial applications. However, despite massive efforts, the realization of such adhesives remains a challenging task, as mainly imposed by the difficulty in balancing the interfacial and bulk properties via an efficient way. Here, we report a facile yet effective strategy to construct a novel underwater adhesive with multiple advantaged performances by virtue of heterocyclic chemistry. This adhesive is designed with the cooperation of a heterocycle-based versatile adhesive functionality and an eco-friendly hydrophilic matrix with cross-linkable sites, which allows water absorption to destroy hydration layer, diverse molecular interactions to enhance interfacial adhesion, and abundant covalent crosslinks to strengthen bulk cohesion. Such a rational design endows the adhesive with strong underwater adhesion (up to 1.16 MPa for wood and 0.36 MPa for poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE)), long-term durability (maintaining pristine strength even after 4 months), and harsh-environment stability (salt, acidic/alkaline, low/high-temperature solutions). This strategy is also generic to derive more adhesive formulas, which offers a new direction for designing the next-generation underwater adhesives with high performance and scalability for practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wood Material Science and Application, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Weidong Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles College of Materials Science and Engineering, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Qiang Gao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wood Material Science and Application, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yi Tan
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wood Material Science and Application, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Cheng Li
- College of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Christian Sonne
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre (ARC), Aarhus University, Faculty of Science and Technology, Frederiksborgvej 399, P.O. Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Jianzhang Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wood Material Science and Application, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Ki-Hyun Kim
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-Ro, Seoul 04763, Korea
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Li F, Mo J, Zhang Z, Shi SQ, Li J, Cao J, Wang Z. Achieving strong, stable, and durable underwater adhesives based on a simple and generic amino-acid-resembling design. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2023. [PMID: 37183590 DOI: 10.1039/d3mh00301a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Developing underwater adhesives is important in many applications. Despite extensive progress, achieving strong, stable, and durable underwater adhesion via a simple and effective way is still challenging, mainly due to the conflict between the interfacial and bulk properties. Here, we report a unique bio-inspired strategy to facilely construct superior underwater adhesives with desirable interfacial and bulk properties. For adhesive design, a hydrophilic backbone is utilized to quickly absorb water for effective dehydration, and a novel amino acid-resembling functional block is developed to provide versatile molecular interactions for high interfacial adhesion. Moreover, the conjunction of these two components enables the generation of abundant covalent crosslinks for robust bulk cohesion. Such a rational design allows the adhesive to present a boosted underwater adhesion (3.92 MPa to glass), remarkable durability (maintaining high strength after one month), and good stability in various harsh environments (pH, salt, high temperature, and organic solvents). This strategy is generic, allowing the derivation of more similar adhesive designs easily and triggering new thinking for designing bio-inspired adhesives and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wood Material Science and Application & Beijing Key Laboratory of Wood Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Jiaying Mo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China, Hong Kong Centre for Cerebro-Caradiovasular Health Engineering (COCHE), Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Zhicheng Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wood Material Science and Application & Beijing Key Laboratory of Wood Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Sheldon Q Shi
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Jianzhang Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wood Material Science and Application & Beijing Key Laboratory of Wood Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Jinfeng Cao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Wood Material Science and Application & Beijing Key Laboratory of Wood Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Zuankai Wang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China.
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4
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Li S, Ma C, Hou B, Liu H. Rational design of adhesives for effective underwater bonding. Front Chem 2022; 10:1007212. [DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.1007212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Underwater adhesives hold great promises in our daily life, biomedical fields and industrial engineering. Appropriate underwater bonding can reduce the huge cost from removing the target substance from water, and greatly lift working efficiency. However, different from bonding in air, underwater bonding is quite challenging. The existence of interfacial water prevents the intimate contact between the adhesives and the submerged surfaces, and water environment makes it difficult to achieve high cohesiveness. Even so, in recent years, various underwater adhesives with macroscopic adhesion abilities were emerged. These smart adhesives can ingeniously remove the interfacial water, and enhance cohesion by utilizing their special physicochemical properties or functional groups. In this mini review, we first give a detail introduction of the difficulties in underwater bonding. Further, we overview the recent strategies that are used to construct underwater adhesives, with the emphasis on how to overcome the difficulties of interfacial water and achieve high cohesiveness underwater. In addition, future perspectives of underwater adhesives from the view of practical applications are also discussed. We believe the review will provide inspirations for the discovery of new strategies to overcome the obstacles in underwater bonding, and therefore may contribute to designing effective underwater adhesives.
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A highly stretchable, UV resistant and underwater adhesive hydrogel based on xylan derivative for sensing. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 220:1084-1094. [PMID: 35985397 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.08.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 07/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels with fascinating adhesion have been demonstrated great potential in various applications. However, most hydrogels lose their adhesion in wet or underwater environments due to the influence of interfacial water. Inspired by mussel, an underwater adhesive hydrogel was facilely fabricated by introducing electrostatic interactions, which consisted of poly (acrylic acid) (PAA), quaternized xylan (QAX) and tannic acid (TA). In this hydrogel, -COO- from PAA, -N+(CH3)3 from QAX and catechol group from TA resembled amino acids with negative and positive charges and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine units in mussel, which endowed the hydrogels with great underwater adhesion through multiple interactions. Notably, acrylic acid (AA) played a key role in the dispersion of the system. QAX, a biomass derived from plants with excellent properties, worked with PAA to construct hydrogel networks. The resultant hydrogels exhibited excellent mechanical properties including remarkable stretchability (>4000 %) and compressibility. Moreover, the hydrogels had superior UV-blocking (~99.96 %), and showed good adhesion both in air and underwater. The hydrogels can be exploited as a wearable sensor to monitor human motions and even subtle motions, which have the potential to be explored in human health monitoring.
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Zhang C, Cai Y, Zhao Q. Coacervation between two positively charged poly(ionic liquid)s. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2200191. [PMID: 35632991 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202200191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Complex coacervates are usually formed through electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged polyelectrolytes, with a few of exceptions such as coacervates of like-charge proteins and polyelectrolytes, both in vivo and in vitro. Understanding of the preparation and mechanism of these coacervates is limited. Here we design a positively charged poly(ionic liquid) poly(1-vinyl-3-benzylimidazolium chloride) (PILben) that bears benzene rings in repeating units. Fluidic coacervates were prepared by mixing the PILben aqueous solution with a like-charge poly(ionic liquid) named poly(dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride) (PDDA). The effects of polymer concentration, temperature and ionic strength in the PILben-PDDA coacervate were studied. Raman spectroscopy and two-dimensional 1 H-13 C heteronuclear single quantum coherence (1 H-13 C HSQC) characterizations verify that the coacervate formation benefits from the cation-π interaction between PILben and PDDA. This work provides principles and understandings of designing coacervates derived from like-charge poly(ionic liquids) with high charge density. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongrui Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Material Chemistry for Energy Conversion and Storage, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Yinmin Cai
- Key Laboratory of Material Chemistry for Energy Conversion and Storage, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Qiang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Material Chemistry for Energy Conversion and Storage, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
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Narayanan A, Dhinojwala A, Joy A. Design principles for creating synthetic underwater adhesives. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:13321-13345. [PMID: 34751690 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00316j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Water and adhesives have a conflicting relationship as demonstrated by the failure of most man-made adhesives in underwater environments. However, living creatures routinely adhere to substrates underwater. For example, sandcastle worms create protective reefs underwater by secreting a cocktail of protein glue that binds mineral particles together, and mussels attach themselves to rocks near tide-swept sea shores using byssal threads formed from their extracellular secretions. Over the past few decades, the physicochemical examination of biological underwater adhesives has begun to decipher the mysteries behind underwater adhesion. These naturally occurring adhesives have inspired the creation of several synthetic materials that can stick underwater - a task that was once thought to be "impossible". This review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress in the science of underwater adhesion over the past few decades. In this review, we introduce the basic thermodynamics processes and kinetic parameters involved in adhesion. Second, we describe the challenges brought by water when adhering underwater. Third, we explore the adhesive mechanisms showcased by mussels and sandcastle worms to overcome the challenges brought by water. We then present a detailed review of synthetic underwater adhesives that have been reported to date. Finally, we discuss some potential applications of underwater adhesives and the current challenges in the field by using a tandem analysis of the reported chemical structures and their adhesive strength. This review is aimed to inspire and facilitate the design of novel synthetic underwater adhesives, that will, in turn expand our understanding of the physical and chemical parameters that influence underwater adhesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amal Narayanan
- School of Polymer Science and Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA.
| | - Ali Dhinojwala
- School of Polymer Science and Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA.
| | - Abraham Joy
- School of Polymer Science and Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA.
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Fan H, Gong JP. Bioinspired Underwater Adhesives. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2102983. [PMID: 34532910 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202102983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Underwater adhesives are in high demand in both commercial and industrial sectors. Compared with adhesives used in dry (air) environments, adhesives used for wet or submerged surfaces in aqueous environments have specific challenges in development and performance. In this review, focus is on adhesives demonstrating macroscopic adhesion to wet/underwater substrates. The current strategies are first introduced for different types of underwater adhesives, and then an overview is provided of the development and performance of underwater adhesives based on different mechanisms and strategies. Finally, the possible research directions and prospects of underwater adhesives are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailong Fan
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, N21W10, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 001-0021, Japan
| | - Jian Ping Gong
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, N21W10, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 001-0021, Japan
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, N21W11, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 001-0021, Japan
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Fu Y, Ren P, Wang F, Liang M, Hu W, Zhou N, Lu Z, Zhang T. Mussel-inspired hybrid network hydrogel for continuous adhesion in water. J Mater Chem B 2021; 8:2148-2154. [PMID: 32091061 DOI: 10.1039/c9tb02863c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The mussel-inspired catechol-based strategy has been widely used in the development of adhesives. However, the properties of the obtained adhesives were still severely limited in a humid environment, particularly in water. In this study, a facile and versatile approach was proposed to prepare an underwater adhesion hydrogel. First, dopamine (DA) was grafted on oxidized carboxymethylcellulose (OCMC) to obtain dopamine-grafted oxidized carboxymethylcellulose (OCMC-DA). Second, the acrylamide (AM) monomer was conjugated with OCMC-DA by a Schiff base reaction, and then polymerized to form an OCMC-DA/PAM hydrogel. The properties of the resulting hydrogel have been fully characterized. The underwater adhesion strength of the hydrogel can reach as high as 86.3 ± 7.2 kPa and reduced to 43 ± 3.4 kPa after being immersed in water for 9 days. More remarkably, we found that the maximal adhesion strength was shown when the G' and G'' of the hydrogel were very close. Moreover, we demonstrated the mechanical properties of our fabricated hydrogel by compressive tests and rheological analysis. The adhesive hydrogel also exhibits excellent biocompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifu Fu
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Pengfei Ren
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Faming Wang
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Min Liang
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Wanjun Hu
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Naizhen Zhou
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Zuhong Lu
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Tianzhu Zhang
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
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Zhou L, Shi H, Li Z, He C. Recent Advances in Complex Coacervation Design from Macromolecular Assemblies and Emerging Applications. Macromol Rapid Commun 2020; 41:e2000149. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.202000149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lili Zhou
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering National University of Singapore 9 Engineering Drive 1 Singapore 117576 Singapore
| | - Huihui Shi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering National University of Singapore 9 Engineering Drive 1 Singapore 117576 Singapore
| | - Zibiao Li
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering A:STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research) 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08‐03 Singapore 138634 Singapore
| | - Chaobin He
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering National University of Singapore 9 Engineering Drive 1 Singapore 117576 Singapore
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering A:STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research) 2 Fusionopolis Way, Innovis, #08‐03 Singapore 138634 Singapore
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Liang M, He C, Dai J, Ren P, Fu Y, Wang F, Ge X, Zhang T, Lu Z. A high-strength double network polydopamine nanocomposite hydrogel for adhesion under seawater. J Mater Chem B 2020; 8:8232-8241. [DOI: 10.1039/d0tb00513d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A mussel-inspired catechol-based strategy has been widely used in the development of underwater adhesives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Liang
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
| | - Chunpeng He
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
| | - Jidong Dai
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
| | - Pengfei Ren
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
| | - Yifu Fu
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
| | - Faming Wang
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
| | - Xin Ge
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
| | - Tianzhu Zhang
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
| | - Zuhong Lu
- State Key Lab of Bioelectronics
- National Demonstration Center for Experimental Biomedical Engineering Education
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- Nanjing 210096
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