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Atiq O, Ricci E, Baschetti MG, De Angelis MG. Molecular Simulations of Hydrogen Sorption in Semicrystalline High-Density Polyethylene: The Impact of the Surface Fraction of Tie-Chains. J Phys Chem B 2024; 128:2799-2810. [PMID: 38452257 PMCID: PMC10961721 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c07705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
The modeling of the barrier properties of semicrystalline polymers has gained interest following the possible application of such materials as protective liners for the safe supply of pressurized hydrogen. The mass transport in such systems is intimately related to the complex intercalation between the crystal and amorphous phases, which was approached in this work through an all-atom representation of high-density polyethylene structures with a tailored fraction of amorphous-crystalline connections (tie-chains). Simulations of the polymer pressure-volume-temperature data and hydrogen sorption were performed by means of molecular dynamics and the Widom test particle insertion method. The discretization of the simulation domains of the semicrystalline structures allowed us to obtain profiles of density, degree of order, and gas solubility. The results indicated that the gas sorption in the crystalline regions is negligible and that the confinement of the amorphous phase between crystals induces a significant increase in density and a drop in the sorption capacity, even in the absence of tie-chains. Adding ties between the crystal and the amorphous phase results in further densification, an increase of the lamella tilt angle, and a decrease in the degree of crystallinity and hydrogen sorption coefficient, in agreement with several literature references.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Atiq
- Department
of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Material Engineering, (DICAM), Alma Mater Studiorum − Università di
Bologna, via Terracini 28, Bologna 40131, Italy
- DPI, P.O. Box 902, Eindhoven 5600 AX, The Netherlands
| | - Eleonora Ricci
- Institute
for Materials and Processes, School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Sanderson Building, Robert Stevenson Road, Scotland EH9 3FB, U.K.
- DPI, P.O. Box 902, Eindhoven 5600 AX, The Netherlands
| | - Marco Giacinti Baschetti
- Department
of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Material Engineering, (DICAM), Alma Mater Studiorum − Università di
Bologna, via Terracini 28, Bologna 40131, Italy
- DPI, P.O. Box 902, Eindhoven 5600 AX, The Netherlands
| | - Maria Grazia De Angelis
- Institute
for Materials and Processes, School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Sanderson Building, Robert Stevenson Road, Scotland EH9 3FB, U.K.
- Department
of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Material Engineering, (DICAM), Alma Mater Studiorum − Università di
Bologna, via Terracini 28, Bologna 40131, Italy
- DPI, P.O. Box 902, Eindhoven 5600 AX, The Netherlands
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2
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Gabana K, Gehring GA, Zeng X, Ungar G. Quantitative Model of Multiple Crystal Growth Rate Minima in Polymers with Regularly Spaced Substituent Groups. Macromolecules 2024; 57:1667-1676. [PMID: 38435680 PMCID: PMC10902838 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.3c02432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
A simple theory has been developed to explain quantitatively the multiple crystal growth rate minima observed experimentally in polyethylene brassylates (PEBs), polymers with regularly spaced "chemical defects", in this case, diester groups separated by 11 methylenes. The minima occur at the transitions where the fold length drops from 4 to 3 repeat units and from 3 to 2 units. An analytical rate-equation model was developed with elementary attachment and detachment steps of individual monomer repeat units, also including postattachment stem lengthening (stem conversion). The model produced a good fit to experimental crystallization rate curves for PEBs of three different molecular weights. The fits confirm in a quantitative way that the anomalies are caused by the self-poisoning effect, as proposed in the original experimental report on PEBs, based on the ideas developed in previous studies on long-chain n-alkanes. It is concluded that the rate minima in PEBs are the result of temporary attachment to the growth surface of stems that are too short to be stable yet long enough and close to stability to obstruct productive growth by stems of sufficient length. The results confirm the ubiquitous presence of self-poisoning at the growth front of polymer crystals in general and will help to achieve a better understanding of the complex process of crystallization of polymers. It will also allow the determination of more realistic parameters controlling their lamellar growth kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kutlwano Gabana
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, U.K.
| | - Gillian A. Gehring
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University of
Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, U.K.
| | - Xiangbing Zeng
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, U.K.
| | - Goran Ungar
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, U.K.
- Shaanxi
International Research Center for Soft Materials, School of Material
Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong
University, Xi’an 710049, China
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3
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Mikhail JP, Rutledge GC. Mechanisms of Shock Dissipation in Semicrystalline Polyethylene. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4262. [PMID: 37959945 PMCID: PMC10650820 DOI: 10.3390/polym15214262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Semicrystalline polymers are lightweight, multiphase materials that exhibit attractive shock dissipation characteristics and have potential applications as protective armor for people and equipment. For shocks of 10 GPa or less, we analyzed various mechanisms for the storage and dissipation of shock wave energy in a realistic, united atom (UA) model of semicrystalline polyethylene. Systems characterized by different levels of crystallinity were simulated using equilibrium molecular dynamics with a Hugoniostat to ensure that the resulting states conform to the Rankine-Hugoniot conditions. To determine the role of structural rearrangements, order parameters and configuration time series were collected during the course of the shock simulations. We conclude that the major mechanisms responsible for the storage and dissipation of shock energy in semicrystalline polyethylene are those associated with plastic deformation and melting of the crystalline domain. For this UA model, plastic deformation occurs primarily through fine crystallographic slip and the formation of kink bands, whose long period decreases with increasing shock pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P. Mikhail
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Gregory C. Rutledge
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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4
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Belin B, Yiannourakou M, Lachet V, Rousseau B. Modeling Method for Semicrystalline Polymers Controlling Aspects of the Morphology at the Molecular Scale for the Study of Mechanical and Physicochemical Properties. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:9673-9685. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c04571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Boris Belin
- Institut de Chimie-Physique UMR 8000, Université Paris Saclay, CNRS, 91405Orsay, France
- IFP Energies nouvelles, 92852Rueil-Malmaison, France
- Materials Design SARL, 92120Montrouge, France
| | | | | | - Bernard Rousseau
- Institut de Chimie-Physique UMR 8000, Université Paris Saclay, CNRS, 91405Orsay, France
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5
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Zhang R, Fall WS, Hall KW, Gehring GA, Zeng X, Ungar G. Roughening Transition and Quasi-continuous Melting of Monolayers of Ultra-long Alkanes: Why Bulk Polymer Melting Is Strongly First-Order. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c01377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ruibin Zhang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Shaanxi International Research Centre for Soft Materials, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
- Department of Physics, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - William S. Fall
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Shaanxi International Research Centre for Soft Materials, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, UK
- Institut Charles Sadron, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, UPR 22, 67034 Strasbourg, France
| | - Kyle Wm. Hall
- Department of Chemistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
| | - Gillian A. Gehring
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S3 7RH, UK
| | - Xiangbing Zeng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
| | - Goran Ungar
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Shaanxi International Research Centre for Soft Materials, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
- Department of Physics, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
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6
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Zhang R, Fall WS, Hall KW, Gehring GA, Zeng X, Ungar G. Quasi-continuous melting of model polymer monolayers prompts reinterpretation of polymer melting. Nat Commun 2021; 12:1710. [PMID: 33731691 PMCID: PMC7969604 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-21799-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Condensed matter textbooks teach us that melting cannot be continuous and indeed experience, including with polymers and other long-chain compounds, tells us that it is a strongly first-order transition. However, here we report nearly continuous melting of monolayers of ultralong n-alkane C390H782 on graphite, observed by AFM and reproduced by mean-field theory and MD simulation. On heating, the crystal-melt interface moves steadily and reversibly from chain ends inward. Remarkably, the final melting point is 80 K above that of the bulk, and equilibrium crystallinity decreases continuously from ~100% to <50% prior to final melting. We show that the similarity in melting behavior of polymers and non-polymers is coincidental. In the bulk, the intermediate melting stages of long-chain crystals are forbidden by steric overcrowding at the crystal-liquid interface. However, there is no crowding in a monolayer as chain segments can escape to the third dimension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruibin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Shaanxi International Research Centre for Soft Materials, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.,Department of Physics, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - William S Fall
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Shaanxi International Research Centre for Soft Materials, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Kyle Wm Hall
- Department of Chemistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gillian A Gehring
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Xiangbing Zeng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.
| | - Goran Ungar
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Shaanxi International Research Centre for Soft Materials, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China. .,Department of Physics, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China.
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7
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Xiao H, Zhang X, Yan D. A Local-Exchange Model of Folding Chain Surface of Polymer Crystal Based on Worm-Like Chain Model within Single-Chain in Mean-Field Theory. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12112555. [PMID: 33143387 PMCID: PMC7693907 DOI: 10.3390/polym12112555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The structure of amorphous layer of folding surface controls the properties of the polymer lamellar crystal, which consists of chains with a loop conformation. The surface tension depends on the length and the distance between two injection points of the loop which involving the reptation motion and lateral exchange motion of the stems. In the present work, a local-exchange motion model based on the worm-like chain model is developed to investigate the effects of lateral motion of stems on the release the surface tension. The optimal distance between two injection points is determined by the balance of chain bending energy and conformational entropy. The numerical results provide evidences to the adjacent re-entry model for various loop lengths. A possible explanation involving density of injection points is proposed to interpret the mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyi Xiao
- Department of Physics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China;
| | - Xinghua Zhang
- School of Science, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China
- Correspondence: (X.Z.); (D.Y.)
| | - Dadong Yan
- Department of Physics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China;
- Correspondence: (X.Z.); (D.Y.)
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8
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Li Y, Agrawal V, Oswald J. Systematic coarse‐graining of semicrystalline polyethylene. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.24789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yiyang Li
- School for the Engineering of Matter Transport and Energy Arizona State University P.O. Box 876106, Tempe Arizona, 85287‐6106
| | - Vipin Agrawal
- School for the Engineering of Matter Transport and Energy Arizona State University P.O. Box 876106, Tempe Arizona, 85287‐6106
| | - Jay Oswald
- School for the Engineering of Matter Transport and Energy Arizona State University P.O. Box 876106, Tempe Arizona, 85287‐6106
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9
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Lempesis N, in ‘t Veld PJ, Rutledge GC. Atomistic Simulation of a Thermoplastic Polyurethane and Micromechanical Modeling. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b01296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Lempesis
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | | | - Gregory C. Rutledge
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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10
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Moyassari A, Unge M, Hedenqvist MS, Gedde UW, Nilsson F. First-principle simulations of electronic structure in semicrystalline polyethylene. J Chem Phys 2017; 146:204901. [PMID: 28571365 PMCID: PMC5440234 DOI: 10.1063/1.4983650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to increase our fundamental knowledge about high-voltage cable insulation materials, realistic polyethylene (PE) structures, generated with a novel molecular modeling strategy, have been analyzed using first principle electronic structure simulations. The PE structures were constructed by first generating atomistic PE configurations with an off-lattice Monte Carlo method and then equilibrating the structures at the desired temperature and pressure using molecular dynamics simulations. Semicrystalline, fully crystalline and fully amorphous PE, in some cases including crosslinks and short-chain branches, were analyzed. The modeled PE had a structure in agreement with established experimental data. Linear-scaling density functional theory (LS-DFT) was used to examine the electronic structure (e.g., spatial distribution of molecular orbitals, bandgaps and mobility edges) on all the materials, whereas conventional DFT was used to validate the LS-DFT results on small systems. When hybrid functionals were used, the simulated bandgaps were close to the experimental values. The localization of valence and conduction band states was demonstrated. The localized states in the conduction band were primarily found in the free volume (result of gauche conformations) present in the amorphous regions. For branched and crosslinked structures, the localized electronic states closest to the valence band edge were positioned at branches and crosslinks, respectively. At 0 K, the activation energy for transport was lower for holes than for electrons. However, at room temperature, the effective activation energy was very low (∼0.1 eV) for both holes and electrons, which indicates that the mobility will be relatively high even below the mobility edges and suggests that charge carriers can be hot carriers above the mobility edges in the presence of a high electrical field.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Moyassari
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - M Unge
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - M S Hedenqvist
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - U W Gedde
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - F Nilsson
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
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11
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Lempesis N, in ‘t Veld PJ, Rutledge GC. Atomistic Simulation of the Structure and Mechanics of a Semicrystalline Polyether. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b00555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Lempesis
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts
Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | | | - Gregory C. Rutledge
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts
Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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12
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Uneyama T, Miyata T, Nitta KH. Self-consistent field model simulations for statistics of amorphous polymer chains in crystalline lamellar structures. J Chem Phys 2014; 141:164906. [PMID: 25362340 DOI: 10.1063/1.4899047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We calculate statistical properties of amorphous polymer chains between crystalline lamellae by self-consistent field model simulations. In our model, an amorphous subchain is modelled as a polymer chain of which ends are grafted onto the crystal-amorphous interfaces. The crystal-amorphous interfaces are expressed as impenetrable surfaces. We incorporate the interaction between segments to satisfy the incompressible condition for the segment density field. The simulation results show that amorphous polymer chains feel thin potential layers, which are mainly repulsive, near the crystal-amorphous interfaces. The impenetrable and incompressible conditions affect the statistics of polymer chains and the chain statistics becomes qualitatively different from the ideal Gaussian chain statistics without any constraints. We show the effects of the system size and the graft density to statistical quantities. We also show that the tie subchain statistics obey rather simple statistics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Uneyama
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Takafumi Miyata
- Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Chikusa, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
| | - Koh-hei Nitta
- Institute of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
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13
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Factors influencing properties of interfacial regions in semicrystalline polyethylene: A molecular dynamics simulation study. POLYMER 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2013.04.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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14
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Rutledge GC. IMPLICATIONS OF METASTABILITY FOR THE CRYSTAL/AMORPHOUS INTERFACE FROM MOLECULAR SIMULATION. J MACROMOL SCI B 2007. [DOI: 10.1081/mb-120013073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory C. Rutledge
- a Department of Chemical Engineering , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, MA, 02139, U.S.A
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15
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Hütter M, in 't Veld PJ, Rutledge GC. Polyethylene {201} crystal surface: interface stresses and thermodynamics. POLYMER 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2005.05.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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16
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in 't Veld PJ, Rutledge GC. Temperature-Dependent Elasticity of a Semicrystalline Interphase Composed of Freely Rotating Chains. Macromolecules 2003. [DOI: 10.1021/ma0346658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pieter J. in 't Veld
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Gregory C. Rutledge
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
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17
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Ungar G, Zeng X, Spells S. Non-integer and mixed integer forms in long n -alkanes observed by real-time LAM spectroscopy and SAXS. POLYMER 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0032-3861(00)00220-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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18
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Balijepalli S, Rutledge G. Conformational statistics of polymer chains in the interphase of semi-crystalline polymers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s1089-3156(99)00063-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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