Size and Vitamin E Release of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers with Different Liquid Lipids, Surfactants and Preparation Methods

Medium-Chain Triacylglycerols (MCTs) and Their Fractions in Drug Delivery Systems : A Systematic Review

Medium-chain triacylglycerol (MCT) is a type of triacylglycerol that has six or seven to twelve carbon chains. It consists of three molecules of fatty acids attached to one molecule of glycerol. Drug delivery system (DDS) is defined as a formulation to distribute drugs into the human body. The unique properties of MCTs have garnered interest in using them as excipients in DDS. Even though there are many significant effects attributed to the use of MCTs, especially in modulating the rate of drug delivery in various DDS, they are all limited and intermittent. This warrants a detailed summary of the previous studies on the use of MCTs in various DDS. Therefore, this review focuses on presenting a systematic review of previous studies on the use of MCTs in the last six years and explores the types and effects of MCTs on DDS that employ various types of delivery routes. A systematic search through PubMed, Science Direct and Scopus was performed. Keywords like "medium-chain triglycerides", "medium-chain fatty acids", "medium-chain triglycerides and their fractions", "medium-chain fatty acids and their fractions", "MCTs", "MCFA", "in drug delivery", "in drug delivery system" and their combinations were used. The synonyms of the words were also used to extend the search. A total of 17 articles that met the inclusion criteria were identified. Findings from this review have identified the several MCTs and their fractions used in DDS that employed the oral/enteral, topical, transdermal, parenteral, and pulmonary routes of drug delivery. The review also highlights that the usage of MCTs in DDS results in a better transportation of drugs into the human body.

Synthesis and characterization of a novel hydrogel based on carboxymethyl chitosan/sodium alginate with the ability to release simvastatin for chronic wound healing

Since wound dressing has been considered a promising strategy to improve wound healing, recent attention has been focused on the development of modern wound dressings based on synthetic and bioactive polymers. In this study, we prepared a multifunctional wound dressing based on carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC)/sodium alginate (Alg) hydrogel containing a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) in which simvastatin (SIM) has been encapsulated. This dressing aimed to act as a barrier against pathogens, eliminate excess exudates, and accelerate wound healing. Among various fabricated composites of dressing, the hydrogel composite with a CMC/sodium Alg ratio of 1:2 had an average pore size of about 98.44 ± 26.9 μm and showed 707 ± 31.9% swelling and a 2116 ± 79.2 g m-2per day water vapor transfer rate (WVTR), demonstrating appropriate properties for absorbing exudates and maintaining wound moisture. The NLC with optimum composition and properties had a spherical shape and uniform particle size distribution (74.46 ± 7.9 nm). The prepared nanocomposite hydrogel displayed excellent antibacterial activity againstEscherichia coliandStaphylococcus aureusas well as high biocompatibility on L929 mouse fibroblast cells. It can release the loaded SIM drug slowly and over a prolonged period of time. The highest drug release occurred (80%) within 14 d. The results showed that this novel nanocomposite could be a promising candidate as a wound dressing for treating various chronic wounds in skin tissues.

Cod liver oil nano-structured lipid carriers (Cod-NLCs) as a promising platform for nose to brain delivery: Preparation, in vitro optimization, ex vivo cytotoxicity & in vivo biodistribution utilizing radioiodinated zopiclone

Nano-structured lipid carriers containing zopiclone were prepared as a targeted drug delivery system to convey zopiclone directly to brain via nasal route. Nano-structured lipid carriers were constructed adopting hot emulsification-ultrasonication method using palmitic acid in place of the solid lipid, cod liver oil as liquid lipid, and poloxamer 407 as a surfactant. A three-factor three-level central composite face-centered design was used to optimize the formulated nano-structured lipid carriers. The independent factors were lipid amount (X₁), surfactant amount (X₂), and sonication time (X₃). The examined responses were entrapment efficiency (EE,Y₁,%), particle size (PS,Y₂,nm), zeta potential(mV), polydispersity index(PDI,Y₃), in vitro release(Q8h,Y₄,%) and dissolution efficiency (DE,Y₅,%). The optimum formula showed high entrapment efficiency of 94.31% ± 2.44, in vitro drug release of 83.89% ± 1.77 with dissolution efficiency equals 88.63% ± 2.01, small particle size of 71.27 nm ± 13.57 and low polydispersity index 0.097 ± 0.15. In vivo biodistribution in mice was evaluated by a radiobiological technique using radioiodinated zopiclone([¹³¹I]iodo-ZP). Results revealed the superiority of the intranasal route to deliver zopiclone directly to brain faster and higher brain uptake (6.9 ± 1.02%ID/g at 5 min post-administration). The current study confirmed that intranasal administration of nano-structured lipid carriers had great potential as an effective tool for targeted brain zopiclone delivery for insomnia treatment.

Encapsulation of Vitamins Using Nanoliposome: Recent Advances and Perspectives

Nowadays the importance of vitamins is clear for everyone. However, many patients are suffering from insufficient intake of vitamins. Incomplete intake of different vitamins from food sources due to their destruction during food processing or decrease in their bioavailability when mixing with other food materials, are factors resulting in vitamin deficiency in the body. Therefore, various lipid based nanocarriers such as nanoliposomes were developed to increase the bioavailability of bioactive compounds. Since the function of nanoliposomes containing vitamins on the body has a direct relationship with the quality of produced nanoliposomes, this review study was planned to investigate the several aspects of liposomal characteristics such as size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency on the quality of synthesized vitamin-loaded nanoliposomes.

A systematic literature review on the current detection tools for authentication analysis of cosmetic ingredients

BACKGROUND

The use of cosmetic products is considered a necessity for beautification in our daily lives. Cosmetic products composed of natural oils or fats as a main ingredient for various beneficial properties. Fats and oils are composed of various type of fatty acids with different compositions. Hence, fatty acids profile can be an effective chemical fingerprint for authentication analysis of cosmetic products.

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review aims to enlighten the current detection tools developing for fatty acids profile authentication analyses of cosmetic ingredients based on the effectiveness, halal status, safety, advantages and disadvantages of the methods.

METHODOLOGY

The data were extracted from the scientific literatures published between October 2015 and 2020 in the Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar databases, and analyzed with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA).

FINDINGS

Based on the systemic literature reviews, essential oil, argan oil, mineral oil, vegetable oil, and jojoba oil were among the mostly studied ingredients in cosmetics. Furthermore, a combination of more than one analytical instrument was utilized to profile fatty acids while the determination of the origin of the fatty acids is under scrutiny. The portable mass spectrometer combined with a direct inlet membrane (DIM) probe seems to be the best tool in terms of time consumption, cost, requires no sample preparation with high efficiency. The current review showed that the best cosmetic base is when the oil is composed of high concentration of fatty acids such as linoleic, oleic, stearic acid, and palmitic acids with concentration range from 19.7 - 46.30%, which offers various beneficial properties to cosmetic products.

Olanzapine Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers via High Shear Homogenization and Ultrasonication

The aim of this study was to understand the effect of high shear homogenization (HSH) and ultrasonication (US) on the physicochemical properties of blank and olanzapine loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) along with their drug loading potential and drug release profiles from formulated particles. NLCs were prepared with different ratios of Compritol and Miglyol as the solid and liquid lipids, respectively, under changing HSH and US times between 0 to 15 min. The surfactants (Poloxamer 188 (P188) and tween 80) and the drug content was kept constant in all formulations. The prepared NLCs were evaluated for particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, drug crystallinity and chemical interactions between lipids and OLZ. The in-vitro drug release was performed using dialysis tube method in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) at pH 7.4. The formulated NLCs were negatively charged, spherically shaped and monodisperse, with particle sizes ranging from 112 to 191 nm. There was a significant influence of US time on the preparation of NLCs in comparison to HSH, where a significant reduction in the mean particle diameter was seen after 5 min of sonication. An increase of Miglyol content in NLCs led to an increase in particle size. In general, application of US led to decrease in particle size after HSH but an increase in particle diameter of low Miglyol containing preparation was also observed with longer sonication time. OLZ was successfully encapsulated in the NLCs and a total release of 89% was achieved in 24 h in PBS at pH 7.4.

Design, Preparation, and Characterization of Effective Dermal and Transdermal Lipid Nanoparticles: A Review

Limited permeability through the stratum corneum (SC) is a major obstacle for numerous skin care products. One promising approach is to use lipid nanoparticles as they not only facilitate penetration across skin but also avoid the drawbacks of conventional skin formulations. This review focuses on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs), and nanoemulsions (NEs) developed for topical and transdermal delivery of active compounds. A special emphasis in this review is placed on composition, preparation, modifications, structure and characterization, mechanism of penetration, and recent application of these nanoparticles. The presented data demonstrate the potential of these nanoparticles for dermal and transdermal delivery.

Dermatokinetic assessment of luliconazole-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) for topical delivery: QbD-driven design, optimization, and in vitro and ex vivo evaluations

The present study is concerned with the QbD-based design and development of luliconazole-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) hydrogel for enhanced skin retention and permeation. The NLCs formulation was optimized employing a 3-factor, 3-level Box-Behnken design. The effect of formulation variable lipid content, surfactant concentration, and sonication time was studied on particle size and % EE. The optimized formulation exhibited particle size of 86.480 ± 0.799 nm; 0.213 ± 0.004 PDI, ≥ - 10 mV zeta potential and 85.770 ± 0.503% EE. The in vitro release studies revealed sustained release of NLCs up to 42 h. The designed formulation showed desirable occlusivity, spreadability (0.748 ± 0.160), extrudability (3.130 ± 1.570), and the assay was found to be 99.520 ± 0.890%. The dermatokinetics assessment revealed the C_{max Skin} to be ~ 2-fold higher and AUC_0-24 to be ~ 3-fold higher in the epidermis and dermis of NLCs loaded gel in contrast with the marketed cream. The T_max of both the formulations was found to be 6 h in the epidermis and dermis. The obtained results suggested that luliconazole NLCs can serve as a promising formulation to enhance luliconazole's antifungal activity and also in increasing patient compliance by reducing the frequency of application.

Lipid-based nanostructures as a strategy to enhance curcumin bioaccessibility: Behavior under digestion and cytotoxicity assessment

The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavior of different lipid-based nanostructures during in vitro digestion, in particular on curcumin's bioaccessibility, and to access their potential toxicity. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) and nanoemulsions (NE) were submitted to harmonized static in vitro digestion and their cytotoxicity and cellular transport were evaluated using Caco-2 cell line. NE presented the highest curcumin's bioaccessibility followed by NLC and SLN, 71.1%, 63.7% and 53.3%, respectively. Free fatty acids percentage increased in the following order: NLC ≤ NE < SLN. Non-digested nanostructures and excipients presented no cytotoxicity; however, digested NE and NLC presented cytotoxicity due to MCT oil, which presented cytotoxicity after digestion. The apparent permeability coefficient of NLC was higher than SLN and NE. These results showed that lipid-based nanostructures' physical state and composition have a high influence on particles' behavior during digestion, and on their cytotoxicity/intestinal permeability, and highlights the importance of conducting cytotoxicity assessments after in vitro digestion. This work contributes to a better understanding of the behavior of lipid-based nanostructures under digestion/adsorption, and this knowledge will be useful in design of nanostructures that afford both safety and an increased bioactive compounds' bioavailability.

Comprehensive Study of Atorvastatin Nanostructured Lipid Carriers through Multivariate Conceptualization and Optimization

The aim of the current study is to establish a comprehensive experimental design for the screening and optimization of Atorvastatin-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (AT-NLCs). Initially, combined D-optimal screening design was applied to find the most significant factors affecting AT-NLCs properties. The studied variables included mixtures of solid and liquid lipids, the solid/liquid lipid ratio, surfactant type and concentration, homogenization speed as well as sonication time. Then, the variables homogenization speed (A), the ratio of solid lipid/liquid lipid (B), and concentration of the surfactant (C) were optimized using a central composite design. Particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency were chosen as dependent responses. The optimized AT-NLCs demonstrated a nanometric size (83.80 ± 1.13 nm), Polydispersity Index (0.38 ± 0.02), surface charge (-29.65 ± 0.65 mV), and high drug incorporation (93.1 ± 0.04%). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis showed no chemical interaction between Atorvastatin and the lipid mixture. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis of the AT-NLCs suggested the transformation of Atorvastatin crystal into an amorphous state. Administration of the optimized AT-NLCs led to a significant reduction (p < 0.001) in serum levels of rats' total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoproteins. This change was histologically validated by reducing the relevant steatosis of the liver.

Boosting the Brain Delivery of Atazanavir through Nanostructured Lipid Carrier-Based Approach for Mitigating NeuroAIDS

Atazanavir (ATZ) presents poor brain availability when administered orally, which poses a major hurdle in its use as an effective therapy for the management of NeuroAIDS. The utilization of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) in conjunction with the premeditated use of excipients can be a potential approach for overcoming the limited ATZ brain delivery. Methods: ATZ-loaded NLC was formulated using the quality by design-enabled approach and further optimized by employing the Box–Behnken design. The optimized nanoformulation was then characterized for several in vitro and in vivo assessments. Results: The optimized NLC showed small particle size of 227.6 ± 5.4 nm, high entrapment efficiency (71.09% ± 5.84%) and high drug loading capacity (8.12% ± 2.7%). The release pattern was observed to be biphasic exhibiting fast release (60%) during the initial 2 h, then trailed by the sustained release. ATZ-NLC demonstrated a 2.36-fold increase in the cumulative drug permeated across the rat intestine as compared to suspension. Pharmacokinetic studies revealed 2.75-folds greater C_max in the brain and 4-fold improvement in brain bioavailability signifying the superiority of NLC formulation over drug suspension. Conclusion: Thus, NLC could be a promising avenue for encapsulating hydrophobic drugs and delivering it to their target site. The results suggested that increase in bioavailability and brain-targeted delivery by NLC, in all plausibility, help in improving the therapeutic prospects of atazanavir.

Lipid-based nanodelivery approaches for dopamine-replacement therapies in Parkinson's disease: From preclinical to translational studies

The incidence of Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, has increased exponentially as the global population continues to age. Although the etiological factors contributing to PD remain uncertain, its average incidence rate is reported to be 1% of the global population older than 60 years. PD is primarily characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons and/or associated neuronal networks and the subsequent depletion of dopamine (DA) levels in the brain. Thus, DA or levodopa (l-dopa), a precursor of DA, represent cardinal targets for both idiopathic and symptomatic PD therapeutics. While several therapeutic strategies have been investigated over the past decade for their abilities to curb the progression of PD, an effective cure for PD is currently unavailable. Even DA replacement therapy, an effective PD therapeutic strategy that provides an exogenous supply of DA or l-dopa, has been hindered by severe challenges, such as a poor capacity to bypass the blood-brain barrier and inadequate bioavailability. Nevertheless, with recent advances in nanotechnology, several drug delivery systems have been developed to bypass the barriers associated with central nervous system therapeutics. In here, we sought to describe the adapted lipid-based nanodrug delivery systems used in the field of PD therapeutics and their recent advances, with a particular focus placed on DA replacement therapies. This work initially explores the background of PD; offers descriptions of the most recent molecular targets; currently available clinical medications/limitations; an overview of several lipid-based PD nanotherapeutics, functionalized nanoparticles, and technical aspects in brain delivery; and, finally, presents future perspectives to enhance the use of nanotherapeutics in PD treatment.