Cooperation of Ha-ras and Bcl-2 during multistep skin carcinogenesis

PKC is an indispensable factor in promoting environmental toxin chromium-mediated transformation and drug resistance

Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] pollution is a serious environmental problem, due to not only its toxicity but also carcinogenesis. Although studies reveal several features of Cr(VI)-induced carcinogenesis, the underlying mechanisms of how Cr(VI) orchestrates multiple mitogenic pathways to promote tumor initiation and progression remain not fully understood. Src/Ras and other growth-related pathways are shown to be key players in Cr(VI)-initiated tumor prone actions. The role of protein kinase C (PKC, an important signal transducer) in Cr(VI)-mediated carcinogenesis has not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, using human bronchial/lung epithelial cells and keratinocytes, we demonstrate that PKC activity is increased by transient or chronic Cr(VI) exposure, which plays no role in the activation of Src/Ras signaling and ROS upregulation by this metal toxin. PKC in chronic Cr(VI)-treated cells stabilizes Bcl-2 to mitigate doxorubicin (an anti-cancer drug)-mediated apoptosis. After the suppression of this kinase by GO6976 (a PKC inhibitor), the cells chronically exposed to Cr(VI) partially regain the sensitivity to doxorubicin. However, when co-suppressed PKC and Ras, the chronic Cr(VI)-treated cells become fully responsive to doxorubicin and are unable to be transformed. Taken together, our study provides a new insight into the mechanisms, in which PKC is an indispensable player and cooperates with other mitogenic pathways to achieve Cr(VI)-induced carcinogenesis as well as to establish drug resistance. The data also suggest that active PKC can serve as a potential biomarker for early detection of health damages by Cr(VI) and therapeutic target for developing new treatments for diseases caused by Cr(VI).

Restrained Terminal Differentiation and Sustained Stemness in Neonatal Skin by Ha-Ras and Bcl-2

Nonmelanoma skin cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in the United States. Deregulation of bcl-2 and ras family members is commonly observed in nonmelanoma skin cancer. It has been previously demonstrated that simultaneous bcl-2 and Ha-ras gene expression in keratinocytes results in resistance to cell death induced by ultraviolet radiation and enhanced multistep skin carcinogenesis. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the central roles of Ha-Ras and Bcl-2 in maintaining epidermal homeostasis. To assess the effect of deregulated Ha-Ras and Bcl-2 on skin differentiation, we have generated skin-specific transgenic mouse model constitutively expressing both oncogenic Ha-Ras and Bcl-2. Ectopic expression of Ha-Ras and Bcl-2 in newborn double transgenic epidermal keratinocytes induced abnormal epidermal differentiation accompanied by increased cell proliferation and suppressed apoptotic cell death, which resulted in thickened and wrinkled skin morphology in neonate skins. Expression of epidermal differentiation marker cytokeratin 1 was decreased. Expression of other differentiation markers loricrin and filaggrin was also decreased and delayed to be detected only in the upper stratum granulosum, whereas the proliferative markers cytokeratin 14 and cytokeratin 6, which are expressed in constitutively proliferative basal layer and stem cell niches such as hair follicles or neoplastic lesions, respectively, were highly expressed. The abnormal expression of epidermal cytokeratins suggests that Ha-Ras and Bcl-2 suppress the terminal differentiation and sustain the stem cell-like features in epidermal keratinocytes.

Oncogenes in cell survival and cell death

The transforming effects of proto-oncogenes such as MYC that mediate unrestrained cell proliferation are countered by "intrinsic tumor suppressor mechanisms" that most often trigger apoptosis. Therefore, cooperating genetic or epigenetic effects to suppress apoptosis (e.g., overexpression of BCL2) are required to enable the dual transforming processes of unbridled cell proliferation and robust suppression of apoptosis. Certain oncogenes such as BCR-ABL are capable of concomitantly mediating the inhibition of apoptosis and driving cell proliferation and therefore are less reliant on cooperating lesions for transformation. Accordingly, direct targeting of BCR-ABL through agents such as imatinib have profound antitumor effects. Other oncoproteins such as MYC rely on the anti-apoptotic effects of cooperating oncoproteins such as BCL2 to facilitate tumorigenesis. In these circumstances, where the primary oncogenic driver (e.g., MYC) cannot yet be therapeutically targeted, inhibition of the activity of the cooperating antiapoptotic protein (e.g., BCL2) can be exploited for therapeutic benefit.

Keratinocyte stem cells and the targets for nonmelanoma skin cancer

The mammalian skin is a complex dynamic organ composed of thin multilayered epidermis and a thick underlying connective tissue layer dermis. The epidermis undergoes continuous renewal throughout life. The stems cells uniquely express particular surface markers utilized for their identification, isolation and localization in specific niches in epidermis as well as hair follicles (HFs). The two stage skin carcinogenesis model involves stepwise accumulation of genetic alterations and ultimately leading to malignancy. Whereas early research on skin carcinogenesis focused on the molecular nature of carcinogens and tumor promoters, more recent studies have focused on the identification of the target cells and tumor promoting cells for both chemical and physical carcinogens and promoters. Recent studies support the hypothesis that keratinocyte stem cells are the targets in skin carcinogenesis. In this review, we discuss briefly the localization of stem cells in the epidermis and HFs, and review the possibility that skin papillomas and carcinomas are derived from stem cells, as well as from other cells in the cutaneous epithelium whose stem cell properties are not well known.

Bcl-2 family members: essential players in skin cancer

Skin cancer has reached epidemic proportions and is considered to be a direct consequence of ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure. Excessive exposure of epidermal cells to UV results in apoptosis of irreparably damaged cells to avoid malignant transformation. The Bcl-2 family of proteins is emerging as a crucial regulator of epidermal homeostasis and cell's fate in the stressed skin. Not surprisingly, deregulation of Bcl-2 family members is also chiefly involved in skin carcinogenesis and response to cancer therapy. Here we discuss the physiopathological role of epidermal Bcl-2 family members, their implications in skin carcinogenesis and as potential targets in cancer therapy.