1
|
Extracellular alpha-synuclein: Sensors, receptors, and responses. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 168:105696. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
|
2
|
Wang T, Shi C, Luo H, Zheng H, Fan L, Tang M, Su Y, Yang J, Mao C, Xu Y. Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's Disease: Triggers, Mechanisms, and Immunotherapies. Neuroscientist 2021; 28:364-381. [PMID: 33576313 DOI: 10.1177/1073858421991066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a heterogeneous neurodegenerative disease involving multiple etiologies and pathogenesis, in which neuroinflammation is a common factor. Both preclinical experiments and clinical studies provide evidence for the involvement of neuroinflammation in the pathophysiology of PD, although there are a number of key issues related to neuroinflammatory processes in PD that remain to be addressed. In this review, we highlight the relationship between the common pathological mechanisms of PD and neuroinflammation, including aggregation of α-synuclein, genetic factors, mitochondrial dysfunction, and gut microbiome dysbiosis. We also describe the two positive feedback loops initiated in PD after the immune system is activated, and their role in the pathogenesis of PD. In addition, the interconnections and differences between the central and peripheral immune systems are discussed. Finally, we review the latest progress in immunotherapy research for PD patients, and propose future directions for clinical research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tai Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Changhe Shi
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Haiyang Luo
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Huimin Zheng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Liyuan Fan
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Mibo Tang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Yun Su
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Chengyuan Mao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Sino-British Research Centre for Molecular Oncology, National Centre for International Research in Cell and Gene Therapy, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Yuming Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Heckman MG, Labbé C, Kolicheski AL, Soto-Beasley AI, Walton RL, Valentino RR, Brennan ER, Johnson PW, Baheti S, Sarangi V, Ren Y, Uitti RJ, Wszolek ZK, Ross OA. Fine-mapping of the non-coding variation driving the Caucasian LRRK2 GWAS signal in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2021; 83:22-30. [PMID: 33454605 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2020.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have confirmed the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene as a susceptibility locus for idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) in Caucasians. Though the rs1491942 and rs76904798 variants have shown the strongest associations, the causal variant(s) remains unresolved. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify variants that may be driving the LRRK2 GWAS signal by sequencing the entire LRRK2 gene in Caucasian PD patients and controls. METHODS A discovery series (287 PD patients, 294 controls) and replication series (362 PD patients, 168 controls) were included. The entire LRRK2 gene as well as 10 Kb upstream/downstream was sequenced. Candidate potential causal variants were considered to be those that (a) were in at least weak linkage disequilibrium with the two GWAS-nominated variants (rs1491942 and rs76904798), and (b) displayed an association odds ratio (OR) that is stronger than the two GWAS variants. RESULTS Thirty-four candidate variants (all intronic/intergenic) that may drive the LRRK2 PD GWAS signal were identified in the discovery series. However, examination of the replication series for these variants did not reveal any with a consistently stronger OR than both PD GWAS variants. Evaluation of public databases to determine which candidate variants are most likely to have a direct functional effect on LRRK2 expression was inconclusive. CONCLUSION Though our findings provide novel insights into the LRRK2 GWAS association, a clear causal variant was not identified. The identified candidate variants can form the basis for future experiments and functional studies that can more definitively assess causal LRRK2 variants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael G Heckman
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
| | - Catherine Labbé
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | | | - Ronald L Walton
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | - Emily R Brennan
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Patrick W Johnson
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Saurabh Baheti
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Vivekananda Sarangi
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Yingxue Ren
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Ryan J Uitti
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | - Owen A Ross
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Department of Clinical Genomics, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tan EK, Chao YX, West A, Chan LL, Poewe W, Jankovic J. Parkinson disease and the immune system - associations, mechanisms and therapeutics. Nat Rev Neurol 2020; 16:303-318. [PMID: 32332985 DOI: 10.1038/s41582-020-0344-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Multiple lines of evidence indicate that immune system dysfunction has a role in Parkinson disease (PD); this evidence includes clinical and genetic associations between autoimmune disease and PD, impaired cellular and humoral immune responses in PD, imaging evidence of inflammatory cell activation and evidence of immune dysregulation in experimental models of PD. However, the mechanisms that link the immune system with PD remain unclear, and the temporal relationships of innate and adaptive immune responses with neurodegeneration are unknown. Despite these challenges, our current knowledge provides opportunities to develop immune-targeted therapeutic strategies for testing in PD, and clinical studies of some approaches are under way. In this Review, we provide an overview of the clinical observations, preclinical experiments and clinical studies that provide evidence for involvement of the immune system in PD and that help to define the nature of this association. We consider autoimmune mechanisms, central and peripheral inflammatory mechanisms and immunogenetic factors. We also discuss the use of this knowledge to develop immune-based therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy that targets α-synuclein and the targeting of immune mediators such as inflammasomes. We also consider future research and clinical trials necessary to maximize the potential of targeting the immune system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eng-King Tan
- Department of Neurology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore.
- National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore, Singapore.
- Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Yin-Xia Chao
- Department of Neurology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
- National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore, Singapore
- Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Andrew West
- Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics, Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Ling-Ling Chan
- Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Radiology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Werner Poewe
- Department of Neurology, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Joseph Jankovic
- Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Foo JN, Tan LC, Irwan ID, Au WL, Low HQ, Prakash KM, Ahmad-Annuar A, Bei J, Chan AY, Chen CM, Chen YC, Chung SJ, Deng H, Lim SY, Mok V, Pang H, Pei Z, Peng R, Shang HF, Song K, Tan AH, Wu YR, Aung T, Cheng CY, Chew FT, Chew SH, Chong SA, Ebstein RP, Lee J, Saw SM, Seow A, Subramaniam M, Tai ES, Vithana EN, Wong TY, Heng KK, Meah WY, Khor CC, Liu H, Zhang F, Liu J, Tan EK. Genome-wide association study of Parkinson's disease in East Asians. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:226-232. [PMID: 28011712 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddw379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on Parkinson's disease (PD) have mostly been done in Europeans and Japanese. No study has been done in Han Chinese, which make up nearly a fifth of the world population. We conducted the first Han Chinese GWAS analysing a total of 22,729 subjects (5,125 PD cases and 17,604 controls) from Singapore, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Korea, mainland China and Taiwan. We performed imputation, merging and logistic regression analyses of 2,402,394 SNPs passing quality control filters in 779 PD cases, 13,227 controls, adjusted for the first three principal components. 90 SNPs with association P < 10-4 were validated in 9 additional sample collections and the results were combined using fixed-effects inverse-variance meta-analysis. We observed strong associations reaching genome-wide significance at SNCA, LRRK2 and MCCC1, confirming their important roles in both European and Asian PD. We also identified significant (P < 0.05) associations at 5 loci (DLG2, SIPA1L2, STK39, VPS13C and RIT2), and observed the same direction of associations at 9 other loci including BST1 and PARK16. Allelic heterogeneity was observed at LRRK2 while European risk SNPs at 6 other loci including MAPT and GBA-SYT11 were non-polymorphic or very rare in our cohort. Overall, we replicate associations at SNCA, LRRK2, MCCC1 and 14 other European PD loci but did not identify Asian-specific loci with large effects (OR > 1.45) on PD risk. Our results also demonstrate some differences in the genetic contribution to PD between Europeans and Asians. Further pan-ethnic meta-analysis with European GWAS cohorts may unravel new PD loci.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jia Nee Foo
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Louis C Tan
- Department of Neurology, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore
| | - Ishak D Irwan
- Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Wing-Lok Au
- Department of Neurology, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore
| | - Hui Qi Low
- Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Kumar-M Prakash
- Department of Neurology, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore
| | - Azlina Ahmad-Annuar
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Jinxin Bei
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Anne Yy Chan
- Neurology Division, Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Chiung Mei Chen
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yi-Chun Chen
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Sun Ju Chung
- Department of Neurology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hao Deng
- Department of Neurology and Center for Experimental Medicine, the Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
| | - Shen-Yang Lim
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Vincent Mok
- Neurology Division, Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, Prince of Wales Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Pang
- School of Forensic Medicine, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhong Pei
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Rong Peng
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui-Fang Shang
- Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Kyuyoung Song
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ai Huey Tan
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Yih-Ru Wu
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Tin Aung
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore.,Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ching-Yu Cheng
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore.,Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore
| | - Fook Tim Chew
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Soo-Hong Chew
- Department of Economics, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Richard P Ebstein
- Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jimmy Lee
- Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore.,Institute of Mental Health, Singapore
| | - Seang-Mei Saw
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore.,Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore.,Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Adeline Seow
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - E-Shyong Tai
- Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Eranga N Vithana
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore.,Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore
| | - Tien-Yin Wong
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore.,Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore
| | - Khai Koon Heng
- Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Wee-Yang Meah
- Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Chiea Chuen Khor
- Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR, Singapore.,Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hong Liu
- Shandong Provincial Institute of Dermatology and Venereology, Shandong Academy of Medical Science, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Furen Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Institute of Dermatology and Venereology, Shandong Academy of Medical Science, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianjun Liu
- Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, A*STAR, Singapore
| | - Eng-King Tan
- Department of Neurology, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore.,Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Genetic Variants in SNCA and the Risk of Sporadic Parkinson's Disease and Clinical Outcomes: A Review. PARKINSONS DISEASE 2017; 2017:4318416. [PMID: 28781905 PMCID: PMC5525082 DOI: 10.1155/2017/4318416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence of the contribution of genetic susceptibility to the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Genetic variations in the SNCA gene are well established by linkage and genome-wide association studies. Positive associations of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in SNCA and increased risk for PD were found. However, the role of SNCA variants in individual traits or phenotypes of PD is unknown. Here, we reviewed the current literature and identified 57 studies, performed in fourteen different countries, that investigated SNCA variants and susceptibility to PD. We discussed the findings based on environmental factors, history of PD, clinical outcomes, and ethnicity. In conclusion, SNPs within the SNCA gene can modify the susceptibility to PD, leading to increased or decreased risk. The risk associations of some SNPs varied among samples. Of notice, no studies in South American or African populations were found. There is little information about the effects of these variants on particular clinical aspects of PD, such as motor and nonmotor symptoms. Similarly, evidence of possible interactions between SNCA SNPs and environmental factors or disease progression is scarce. There is a need to expand the clinical applicability of these data as well as to investigate the role of SNCA SNPs in populations with different ethnic backgrounds.
Collapse
|
7
|
Chan SL, Tan EK. Targeting LRRK2 in Parkinson's disease: an update on recent developments. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2017; 21:601-610. [PMID: 28443359 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2017.1323881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION LRRK2 research has progressed significantly in recent years with more reports of LRRK2 interactors and the development of more specific and sophisticated LRRK2 kinase inhibitors. Identification of bone fide LRRK2 substrates will provide new therapeutic targets in LRRK2-linked Parkinson's disease (PD). Areas covered: This review aims to put current LRRK2 research into perspective. Beginning with recent LRRK2 mammalian models employed for in vivo validation of LRRK2 substrates, followed by updates on reported LRRK2 interactors and their inferred mechanisms. Finally an overview of commonly used LRRK2 kinase inhibitors will be depicted. Expert opinion: Identification of LRRK2 non-kinase functions suggests the possibility of alternative LRRK2 drug target sites and these should be further explored. Studies on the effects of LRRK2 kinase inhibition on its non-kinase function and its self-regulatory role will provide further insights on its pathophysiologic mechanisms. Development of robust measurements of LRRK2 inhibitor efficacy will be required. These would include identification of specific imaging ligands or direct biochemical assays that can accurately capture its intrinsic activity. Testing of new therapeutic drug targets in both LRRK2 carriers and non LRRK2-linked patients will be important since their phenotype is similar.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sharon L Chan
- a Department of Neurology , National Neuroscience institute, Duke NUS Medical School , Singapore
| | - Eng-King Tan
- a Department of Neurology , National Neuroscience institute, Duke NUS Medical School , Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Affiliation(s)
- Christine Klein
- Institute of Neurogenetics; University of Lübeck; Lübeck Germany
| |
Collapse
|