1
|
Shabbir B, Yu JC, Warnakula T, Ayyubi RAW, Pollock JA, Hossain MM, Kim JE, Macadam N, Ng LWT, Hasan T, Vak D, Kitchen MJ, Jasieniak JJ. Printable Perovskite Diodes for Broad-Spectrum Multienergy X-Ray Detection. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2210068. [PMID: 36852617 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202210068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Multienergy X-ray detection is critical to effectively differentiate materials in a variety of diagnostic radiology and nondestructive testing applications. Silicon and selenium X-ray detectors are the most common for multienergy detection; however, these present poor energy discrimination across the broad X-ray spectrum and exhibit limited spatial resolution due to the high thicknesses required for radiation attenuation. Here, an X-ray detector based on solution-processed thin-film metal halide perovskite that overcomes these challenges is introduced. By harnessing an optimized n-i-p diode configuration, operation is achieved across a broad range of soft and hard X-ray energies stemming from 0.1 to 10's of keV. Through detailed experimental and simulation work, it is shown that optimized Cs0.1 FA0.9 PbI3 perovskites effectively attenuate soft and hard X-rays, while also possessing excellent electrical properties to result in X-ray detectors with high sensitivity factors that exceed 5 × 103 µ C G y Vac - 1 cm - 2 $\mu {\rm{C}}\;{{\bf Gy}}_{{\rm{Vac}}}^{ - 1}\;{\rm{c}}{{\rm{m}}^{ - 2}}$ and 6 × 104 µC Gy-1 cm-2 within soft and hard X-ray regimes, respectively. Harnessing the solution-processable nature of the perovskites, roll-to-roll printable X-ray detectors on flexible substrates are also demonstrated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Babar Shabbir
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Exciton Science, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Jae Choul Yu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Exciton Science, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Tharindu Warnakula
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Exciton Science, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - R A W Ayyubi
- Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA
| | - James A Pollock
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - M Mosarof Hossain
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia
| | - Jueng-Eun Kim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- CSIRO Manufacturing, Clayton, Victoria, 3168, Australia
| | - Nasiruddin Macadam
- Cambridge Graphene Centre, University of Cambridge, CB3 0FA, Cambridge, UK
| | - Leonard W T Ng
- Cambridge Graphene Centre, University of Cambridge, CB3 0FA, Cambridge, UK
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Tawfique Hasan
- Cambridge Graphene Centre, University of Cambridge, CB3 0FA, Cambridge, UK
| | - Doojin Vak
- CSIRO Manufacturing, Clayton, Victoria, 3168, Australia
| | - Marcus J Kitchen
- School of Physics and Astronomy, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Jacek J Jasieniak
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Exciton Science, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Day JA, Tanguay J. The detective quantum efficiency of cadmium telluride photon-counting x-ray detectors in breast imaging applications. Med Phys 2021; 49:1481-1494. [PMID: 34905627 DOI: 10.1002/mp.15411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE In breast imaging applications, cadmium telluride (CdTe) photon counting x-ray detectors (PCDs) may reduce radiation dose and enable single-shot multi-energy x-ray imaging. The purpose of this work is to determine the upper limits of the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of CdTe PCDs for x-ray mammography and to compare them with the published DQEs of energy-integrating detectors (EIDs) and other PCDs. METHODS We calibrated and validated a Monte Carlo (MC) model of the DQE of CdTe PCDs using an XCounter CdTe PCD. Our model accounted for charge sharing, electronic noise, and charge summation logic. We used a 28 kVp Mo/Mo spectrum hardened by 3.9 cm of Lucite to optimize the detector thickness and energy threshold for pixel sizes of 50, 85, and 100 μ m with and without inter-pixel charge summation logic. The figure of merit used for optimization was the integral of the DQE, which is equivalent to the detectability index for a delta function task function, which represents a high-frequency task. RESULTS For an electronic noise level equal to that of the XCounter, the optimal DQE(0) without charge summing was 0.74. Charge summing for charge-sharing correction reduced DQE(0) by 14% due to an increase in electronic noise. Reducing the electronic noise to ∼0.5 keV per pixel in combination with charge summing resulted in DQE(0) ≈ 0.78 for 85 μ m pixels, which is approximately equal to that of a-Se and slot-scanning silicon-strip PCDs. At higher spatial frequencies, and for matched pixel sizes, the DQE was inferior to that of a-Se EIDs and superior to that of slot-scanning silicon-strip PCDs in the scan direction but inferior in the slit direction. CONCLUSIONS (1) CdTe PCDs have the potential to provide a zero-frequency DQE equal to that of a-Se EIDs and slot-scanning silicon-strip PCDs, but this will require electronic noise levels ∼0.5 keV per pixel. (2) At mid-to-high spatial frequencies the DQE of CdTe PCDs may be (a) inferior to that of a-Se EIDs and slot-scanning silicon-strip PCDs in the slit direction, and (b) superior to slot-scanning silicon-strip PCDs in the scan direction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James A Day
- Department of Physics, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jesse Tanguay
- Department of Physics, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ruth V, Kolditz D, Steiding C, Kalender WA. Investigation of spectral performance for single-scan contrast-enhanced breast CT using photon-counting technology: A phantom study. Med Phys 2020; 47:2826-2837. [PMID: 32155660 DOI: 10.1002/mp.14133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Contrast-enhanced imaging of the breast is frequently used in breast MRI and has recently become more common in mammography. The purpose of this study was to make single-scan contrast-enhanced imaging feasible for photon-counting breast CT (pcBCT) and to assess the spectral performance of a pcBCT scanner by evaluating iodine maps and virtual non-contrast (VNC) images. METHODS We optimized the settings of a pcBCT to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio between iodinated contrast agent and breast tissue. Therefore, an electronic energy threshold dividing the x-ray spectrum used into two energy bins was swept from 23.17 keV to 50.65 keV. Validation measurements were performed by placing syringes with contrast agent (2.5 mg/ml to 40 mg/ml) in phantoms with 7.5 cm and 12 cm in diameter. Images were acquired at different tube currents and reconstructed with 300 μm isotropic voxel size. Iodine maps and VNC images were generated using image-based material decomposition. Iodine concentrations and CT values were measured for each syringe and compared to the known concentrations and reference CT values. RESULTS Maximal signal-to-noise ratios were found at a threshold position of 32.59 keV. Accurate iodine quantification (average root mean square error of 0.56 mg/ml) was possible down to a concentration of 2.5 mg/ml for all tube currents investigated. The enhancement has been sufficiently removed in the VNC images, so they can be interpreted as unenhanced CT images. Only minor changes of CT values compared to a conventional CT scan were observed. Noise was increased by the decomposition by a factor of 2.62 and 4.87 (7.5 cm and 12 cm phantoms) but did not compromise the accuracy of the iodine quantification. CONCLUSIONS Accurate iodine quantification and generation of VNC images can be achieved using contrast-enhanced pcBCT from a single CT scan in the absence of temporal or spatial misalignment. Using iodine maps and VNC images, pcBCT has the potential to reduce dose, shorten examination and reading time, and to increase cancer detection rates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veikko Ruth
- Institute of Medical Physics, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, 91052, Germany.,AB-CT - Advanced Breast-CT GmbH, Erlangen, 91052, Germany
| | - Daniel Kolditz
- AB-CT - Advanced Breast-CT GmbH, Erlangen, 91052, Germany
| | | | - Willi A Kalender
- Institute of Medical Physics, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, 91052, Germany.,AB-CT - Advanced Breast-CT GmbH, Erlangen, 91052, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Huang H, Scaduto DA, Liu C, Yang J, Zhu C, Rinaldi K, Eisenberg J, Liu J, Hoernig M, Wicklein J, Vogt S, Mertelmeier T, Fisher PR, Zhao W. Comparison of contrast-enhanced digital mammography and contrast-enhanced digital breast tomosynthesis for lesion assessment. J Med Imaging (Bellingham) 2019; 6:031407. [PMID: 30766895 DOI: 10.1117/1.jmi.6.3.031407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Contrast-enhanced digital mammography (CEDM) reveals neovasculature of breast lesions in a two-dimensional contrast enhancement map. Contrast-enhanced digital breast tomosynthesis (CEDBT) provides contrast enhancement in three dimensions, which may improve lesion characterization and localization. We aim to compare CEDM and CEDBT for lesion assessment. Women with breast imaging-reporting and data system 4 or 5 suspicious breast lesion(s) were recruited in our study and were imaged with CEDM and CEDBT in succession under one breast compression. Two radiologists assessed CEDM and CEDBT with both images displayed side-by-side and compared (1) contrast enhancement of lesions and (2) lesion margin using a five-point scale ranging from - 2 (CEDM much better) to + 2 (CEDBT much better). Biopsy identified 19 malignant lesions with contrast enhancement. Our results show that CEDBT provides better lesion margins than CEDM with limited reduction in contrast enhancement. CEDBT delivers less radiation dose compared to CEDM + DBT. Synthetic CEDM can be generated from CEDBT data and provides lesion contrast enhancement comparable to CEDM. CEDBT has potential for clinical applications, such as treatment response monitoring and guidance for biopsy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hailiang Huang
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Radiology, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | - David A Scaduto
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Radiology, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | - Chunling Liu
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Radiology, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | - Jie Yang
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Family, Population and Preventive Medicine, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | - Chencan Zhu
- Stony Brook University, Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | - Kim Rinaldi
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Radiology, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | - Jason Eisenberg
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Radiology, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | - Jingxuan Liu
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Pathology, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | | | | | - Sebastian Vogt
- Siemens Medical Solutions USA Inc., Monument, Colorado, United States
| | | | - Paul R Fisher
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Radiology, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| | - Wei Zhao
- Stony Brook Medicine, Department of Radiology, Stony Brook, New York, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Acciavatti RJ, Maidment ADA. Nonstationary model of oblique x-ray incidence in amorphous selenium detectors: II. Transfer functions. Med Phys 2018; 46:505-516. [PMID: 30488455 DOI: 10.1002/mp.13312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE One limitation of experimental techniques for quantifying resolution and noise in detectors is that the measurement is made in a region-of-interest (ROI). With theoretical modeling, these properties can be measured at a point, allowing for quantification of spatial anisotropy. This paper calculates nonstationary transfer functions for amorphous selenium (a-Se) detectors in breast imaging. We use this model to demonstrate the performance advantage of a "next-generation" tomosynthesis (NGT) system, which is capable of x-ray source motion with more degrees of freedom than a clinical tomosynthesis system. METHODS Using Swank's formulation, the optical transfer function (OTF) and presampled noise power spectra (NPS) are determined based on the point spread function derived in Part 1. The modulation transfer function (MTF) is found from the normalized modulus of the OTF. To take into account the presence of digitization, the presampled NPS is convolved with a two-dimensional comb function, for which the period along each direction is the reciprocal of the detector element size. The detective quantum efficiency (DQE) is then determined from combined knowledge of the OTF and NPS. RESULTS First, the model is used to demonstrate the loss of image quality due to oblique x-ray incidence. The MTF is calculated along various polar angles, corresponding to different orientations of the input frequency. The MTF is independent of the incidence angle if the polar angle is perpendicular to the ray incidence direction. However, along other polar angles, oblique incidence results in MTF degradation at high frequencies. The MTF degradation is most substantial along the ray incidence direction. Unlike the MTF, the normalized NPS (NNPS) is independent of the incidence angle. To measure the relative signal-to-noise, the DQE is also calculated. Oblique incidence yields high-frequency DQE degradation, which is more pronounced than the MTF degradation. This arises because the DQE is proportionate with the square of the MTF. Ultimately, this model is used to evaluate how the image quality varies over the detector area. For various projection images, we calculate the variation in the incidence angle over this area. With the NGT system, the source can be positioned in such a way that this variation is minimized, and hence the DQE exhibits less anisotropy. To achieve this improvement in the image quality, the source needs to have a component of motion in the posteroanterior (PA) direction, which is perpendicular to the conventional direction of source motion in tomosynthesis. CONCLUSIONS In a-Se detectors, the DQE at high frequencies is degraded due to oblique incidence. The DQE degradation is more pronounced than the MTF degradation. This model is used to quantify the spatial variation in DQE over the detector area. The use of PA source motion is a strategy for minimizing this variation and thus improving the image quality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raymond J Acciavatti
- Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-4206, USA
| | - Andrew D A Maidment
- Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-4206, USA
| |
Collapse
|