1
|
Fregolente LG, Rodrigues MT, Oliveira NC, Araújo BS, Nascimento ÍV, Souza Filho AG, Paula AJ, Costa MCG, Mota JCA, Ferreira OP. Effects of chemical aging on carbonaceous materials: Stability of water-dispersible colloids and their influence on the aggregation of natural-soil colloid. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166835. [PMID: 37678531 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Although hydrochar and biochar have been used as soil conditioners, there is not a clear understanding of how their properties changes due to aging impacts their colloidal particles behavior on the soil system. From this premise, we produced hydrochar and biochar from the same feedstock (cashew bagasse) and aged with different chemical methods: (i) using hydrogen peroxide, (ii) a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids, and (iii) hot water. It was analyzed the effects of aging on the stability of the carbonaceous materials (CMs) colloids in aqueous medium with different ionic strength (single systems), as well as the stability of the natural-soil colloid when interacting with biochar and hydrochar colloids (binary systems). A chemical composition (C, H, N, and O content) change in CMs due to the chemically induced aging was observed along with minor structural modifications. Chemical aging could increase the amount of oxygen functional groups for both biochar and hydrochar, though in a different level depending on the methodology applied. In this sense, hydrochar was more susceptive to chemical oxidation than biochar. The effectiveness of chemical aging treatments for biochar increased in the order of water < acid < hydrogen peroxide, whereas for hydrochar the order was water < hydrogen peroxide < acid. While the increase in surface oxidation improved the biochar colloidal stability in water medium at different ionic strengths (single systems), the stability and critical coagulation concentration (CCC) slightly changed for hydrochar. Natural-soil clay (NSC) interactions with oxidized carbonaceous material colloids (binary systems) enhanced NSC stability, which is less likely to aggregate. Therefore, the aging of carbonaceous materials modifies the interaction and dynamics of soil small particles, requiring far more attention to the environmental risks due to their application over time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laís G Fregolente
- Physics Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil.
| | - Maria T Rodrigues
- Physics Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil
| | - Naiara C Oliveira
- Physics Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil
| | - Bruno Sousa Araújo
- Physics Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil
| | - Ícaro V Nascimento
- Soil Science Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil
| | - Antonio G Souza Filho
- Physics Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil
| | - Amauri J Paula
- Physics Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil; Ilum School of Science, Centro Nacional de Pesquisa em Energia e Materiais - CNPEM, Campinas, São Paulo State, Brazil
| | - Mirian C G Costa
- Soil Science Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil
| | - Jaedson C A Mota
- Soil Science Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil
| | - Odair P Ferreira
- Physics Department, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará State postcode 60455-900, Brazil; Laboratório de Materiais Funcionais Avançados (LaMFA), Chemistry Department, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Londrina, Paraná State postcode 86057-970, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ibrahim MM, Liu D, Wu F, Chen Y, He Z, Zhang W, Xing S, Mao Y. Nitrogen retention potentials of magnesium oxide- and sepiolite-modified biochars and their impacts on bacterial distribution under nitrogen fertilization. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 866:161358. [PMID: 36603627 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Mitigating the loss and negative impacts of reactive N from fertilized soils remains a global environmental challenge. To optimize N retention by biochar, bamboo and pig manure biochars were modified as MgO- and sepiolite-biochar composites and characterized. Novel soil application of the modified biochars and their raw forms were comparatively evaluated for N-retention in a fertilized soil leached for 90 days in a column experiment. Changes in N-cycling-related enzyme and bacterial structure were also reported after 90 days. Results revealed low leaching losses of NH4+, which reduced over time across all the treatments. However, while sole fertilizer (F) increased the initial and cumulative NO3- leached from the soil, the MgO-bamboo biochar (MgOBF) and sepiolite-bamboo biochar (SBF) treatments reduced leachate NO3- by 22.1 % and 10.5 % compared to raw bamboo biochar (BBF) treatment. However, 15.5 % more NO3- was leached from the MgO-pig manure biochar-treated soil (MgOPF) compared to its raw biochar treatment (PMBF) after 90 days. Dissolved organic N leached was reduced by 9.2 % and 0.5 % in MgOBF and SBF, as well as 15.4 % and 40.5 % in MgOPF and SPF compared to their respective raw forms. The total N of the biochars, adjustment of surface charges, cation exchange capacity, surface area, pore filling effects, and the formation of potential MgN precipitates on the modified-biochar surfaces regulated N leaching/retention. In addition, the modified biochar treatments reduced the hydrolysis of urea and stimulated some nitrate-reduction-related bacteria crucial for NO3- retention. Hence, unlike the raw biochar and MgOPF treatments, MgOBF, SBF, and SPF hold promise in mitigating inorganic-N losses from fertilized soils while improving the soil's chemical properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammed Mustapha Ibrahim
- College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Key Laboratory of Vegetation Restoration and Management of Degraded Ecosystems, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; Key Research Laboratory of Soil Ecosystem Health and Regulation in Fujian Provincial University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China
| | - Dongming Liu
- College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Key Research Laboratory of Soil Ecosystem Health and Regulation in Fujian Provincial University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China
| | - Fengying Wu
- College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Key Research Laboratory of Soil Ecosystem Health and Regulation in Fujian Provincial University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China
| | - Yulin Chen
- College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Key Research Laboratory of Soil Ecosystem Health and Regulation in Fujian Provincial University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China
| | - Zhengxuan He
- College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Key Research Laboratory of Soil Ecosystem Health and Regulation in Fujian Provincial University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China
| | - Weiting Zhang
- College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Key Research Laboratory of Soil Ecosystem Health and Regulation in Fujian Provincial University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China
| | - Shihe Xing
- College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Key Research Laboratory of Soil Ecosystem Health and Regulation in Fujian Provincial University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China
| | - Yanling Mao
- College of Resources and Environment, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Key Research Laboratory of Soil Ecosystem Health and Regulation in Fujian Provincial University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China; Fujian Colleges and Universities Engineering Research Institute of Conservation and Utilization of Natural Bioresources, College of Forestry, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, Fujian Province, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
Biochar is a porous material obtained by biomass thermal degradation in oxygen-starved conditions. It is nowadays applied in many fields. For instance, it is used to synthesize new materials for environmental remediation, catalysis, animal feeding, adsorbent for smells, etc. In the last decades, biochar has been applied also to soils due to its beneficial effects on soil structure, pH, soil organic carbon content, and stability, and, therefore, soil fertility. In addition, this carbonaceous material shows high chemical stability. Once applied to soil it maintains its nature for centuries. Consequently, it can be considered a sink to store atmospheric carbon dioxide in soils, thereby mitigating the effects of global climatic changes. The literature contains plenty of papers dealing with biochar’s environmental effects. However, a discrepancy exists between studies dealing with biochar applications and those dealing with the physical-chemistry behind biochar behavior. On the one hand, the impression is that most of the papers where biochar is tested in soils are based on trial-and-error procedures. Sometimes these give positive results, sometimes not. Consequently, it appears that the scientific world is divided into two factions: either supporters or detractors. On the other hand, studies dealing with biochar’s physical-chemistry do not appear helpful in settling the factions’ problem. This review paper aims at collecting all the information on physical-chemistry of biochar and to use it to explain biochar’s role in different fields of application.
Collapse
|
4
|
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance with Fast Field-Cycling Setup: A Valid Tool for Soil Quality Investigation. AGRONOMY-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/agronomy10071040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques are largely employed in several fields. As an example, NMR spectroscopy is used to provide structural and conformational information on pure systems, while affording quantitative evaluation on the number of nuclei in a given chemical environment. When dealing with relaxation, NMR allows understanding of molecular dynamics, i.e., the time evolution of molecular motions. The analysis of relaxation times conducted on complex liquid–liquid and solid–liquid mixtures is directly related to the nature of the interactions among the components of the mixture. In the present review paper, the peculiarities of low resolution fast field-cycling (FFC) NMR relaxometry in soil science are reported. In particular, the general aspects of the typical FFC NMR relaxometry experiment are firstly provided. Afterwards, a discussion on the main mathematical models to be used to “read” and interpret experimental data on soils is given. Following this, an overview on the main results in soil science is supplied. Finally, new FFC NMR-based hypotheses on nutrient dynamics in soils are described
Collapse
|
5
|
Hyväluoma J, Kulju S, Hannula M, Wikberg H, Källi A, Rasa K. Quantitative characterization of pore structure of several biochars with 3D imaging. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:25648-25658. [PMID: 28342082 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-8823-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Pore space characteristics of biochars may vary depending on the used raw material and processing technology. Pore structure has significant effects on the water retention properties of biochar amended soils. In this work, several biochars were characterized with three-dimensional imaging and image analysis. X-ray computed microtomography was used to image biochars at resolution of 1.14 μm and the obtained images were analysed for porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area and structural anisotropy. In addition, random walk simulations were used to relate structural anisotropy to diffusive transport. Image analysis showed that considerable part of the biochar volume consist of pores in size range relevant to hydrological processes and storage of plant available water. Porosity and pore size distribution were found to depend on the biochar type and the structural anisotopy analysis showed that used raw material considerably affects the pore characteristics at micrometre scale. Therefore, attention should be paid to raw material selection and quality in applications requiring optimized pore structure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jari Hyväluoma
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), FI-31600, Jokioinen, Finland.
| | - Sampo Kulju
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), FI-31600, Jokioinen, Finland
| | - Markus Hannula
- BioMediTech Institute and Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland
| | - Hanne Wikberg
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., P.O.Box 1000, FI-02044, VTT, Espoo, Finland
| | - Anssi Källi
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., P.O.Box 1000, FI-02044, VTT, Espoo, Finland
| | - Kimmo Rasa
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), FI-31600, Jokioinen, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Korb JP. Multiscale nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion of complex liquids in bulk and confinement. PROGRESS IN NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY 2018; 104:12-55. [PMID: 29405980 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnmrs.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 10/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion (NMRD) technique consists of measurement of the magnetic-field dependence of the longitudinal nuclear-spin-lattice relaxation rate 1/T1. Usually, the acquisition of the NMRD profiles is made using a fast field cycling (FFC) NMR technique that varies the magnetic field and explores a very large range of Larmor frequencies (10 kHz < ω0/(2π) <40 MHz). This allows extensive explorations of the fluctuations to which nuclear spin relaxation is sensitive. The FFC technique thus offers opportunities on multiple scales of both time and distance for characterizing the molecular dynamics and transport properties of complex liquids in bulk or embedded in confined environments. This review presents the principles, theories and applications of NMRD for characterizing fundamental properties such as surface correlation times, diffusion coefficients and dynamical surface affinity (NMR wettability) for various confined liquids. The basic longitudinal and transverse relaxation equations are outlined for bulk liquids. The nuclear relaxation of a liquid confined in pores is considered in detail in order to find the biphasic fast exchange relations for a liquid at proximity of a solid surface. The physical-chemistry of liquids at solid surfaces induces striking differences between NMRD profiles of aprotic and protic (water) liquids embedded in calibrated porous disordered materials. A particular emphasis of this review concerns the extension of FFC NMR relaxation to industrial applications. For instance, it is shown that the FFC technique is sufficiently rapid for following the progressive setting of cement-based materials (plasters, cement pastes, concretes). The technique also allows studies of the dynamics of hydrocarbons in proximity of asphaltene nano-aggregates and macro-aggregates in heavy crude oils as a function of the concentration of asphaltenes. It also gives new information on the wettability of petroleum fluids (brine and oil) embedded in shale oil rocks. It is useful for understanding the relations and correlations between NMR relaxation times T1 and T2, diffusion coefficients D, and viscosity η of heavy crude oils. This is of particular importance for interpreting T1, T2, 2D T1-T2 and D-T2 correlation spectra that could be obtained down-hole, thus giving a valuable tool for investigating in situ the molecular dynamics of petroleum fluids. Another domain of interest concerns biological applications. This is of particular importance for studying the complex dynamical spectrum of a folded polymeric structure that may span many decades in frequency or time. A direct NMRD characterization of water diffusional dynamics is presented at the protein interface. NMR experiments using a shuttle technique give results well above the frequency range accessible via the FFC technique; examples of this show protein dynamics over a range from fast and localized motions to slow and delocalized collective motions involving the whole protein. This review ends by an interpretation of the origin of the proton magnetic field dependence of T1 for different biological tissues of animals; this includes a proposal for interpreting in vivo MRI data from human brain at variable magnetic fields, where the FFC relaxation analysis suggests that brain white-matter is distinct from grey-matter, in agreement with diffusion-weighted MRI imaging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Pierre Korb
- Laboratoire de Physique de la Matière Condensée, Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS, Université de Paris Saclay, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France; Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, CNRS, PHENIX Laboratory, F-75005 Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Faheem F, Bao J, Zheng H, Tufail H, Irshad S, Du J. Adsorption-assisted decontamination of Hg(ii) from aqueous solution by multi-functionalized corncob-derived biochar. RSC Adv 2018; 8:38425-38435. [PMID: 35559052 PMCID: PMC9090558 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra06622a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) contamination of wastewater streams as a result of anthropogenic activities is a great threat to living organisms due to its acute toxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Faheem Faheem
- School of Environmental Studies
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Jianguo Bao
- School of Environmental Studies
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Han Zheng
- School of Environmental Studies
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Haseeb Tufail
- School of Environmental Studies
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Sana Irshad
- School of Environmental Studies
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Jiangkun Du
- School of Environmental Studies
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hagemann N, Joseph S, Schmidt HP, Kammann CI, Harter J, Borch T, Young RB, Varga K, Taherymoosavi S, Elliott KW, McKenna A, Albu M, Mayrhofer C, Obst M, Conte P, Dieguez-Alonso A, Orsetti S, Subdiaga E, Behrens S, Kappler A. Organic coating on biochar explains its nutrient retention and stimulation of soil fertility. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1089. [PMID: 29057875 PMCID: PMC5715018 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01123-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Amending soil with biochar (pyrolized biomass) is suggested as a globally applicable approach to address climate change and soil degradation by carbon sequestration, reducing soil-borne greenhouse-gas emissions and increasing soil nutrient retention. Biochar was shown to promote plant growth, especially when combined with nutrient-rich organic matter, e.g., co-composted biochar. Plant growth promotion was explained by slow release of nutrients, although a mechanistic understanding of nutrient storage in biochar is missing. Here we identify a complex, nutrient-rich organic coating on co-composted biochar that covers the outer and inner (pore) surfaces of biochar particles using high-resolution spectro(micro)scopy and mass spectrometry. Fast field cycling nuclear magnetic resonance, electrochemical analysis and gas adsorption demonstrated that this coating adds hydrophilicity, redox-active moieties, and additional mesoporosity, which strengthens biochar-water interactions and thus enhances nutrient retention. This implies that the functioning of biochar in soil is determined by the formation of an organic coating, rather than biochar surface oxidation, as previously suggested. Biochar promotes plant growth via a slow release of nutrients; however, a mechanistic understanding of nutrient storage in biochar is lacking. Here, using high-resolution spectromicroscopy and mass spectrometry, the authors identify an organic coating on co-composted particles that enhances nutrient retention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolas Hagemann
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tuebingen, Sigwartstrasse 10, Tuebingen, 72076, Germany.,Environmental Analytics, Agroscope, Reckenholzstraße 191, 8046, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stephen Joseph
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Chemistry, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia.,School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia.,Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Hans-Peter Schmidt
- Ithaka Institute for Carbon Strategies, Ancienne Eglise 9, Arbaz, 1974, Switzerland
| | - Claudia I Kammann
- Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, WG Climate Change Research for Special Crops, Hochschule Geisenheim University, von-Lade Str. 1, Geisenheim, 65366, Germany
| | - Johannes Harter
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tuebingen, Sigwartstrasse 10, Tuebingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Thomas Borch
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences and Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Robert B Young
- Department of Soil and Crop Sciences and Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Krisztina Varga
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA
| | - Sarasadat Taherymoosavi
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Chemistry, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - K Wade Elliott
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA
| | - Amy McKenna
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, 1800 East Paul Dirac Drive, Tallahassee, FL, 32310-4005, USA
| | - Mihaela Albu
- Austrian Cooperative Research, Centre for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis, Steyrergasse 17, Graz, 8010, Austria
| | - Claudia Mayrhofer
- Austrian Cooperative Research, Centre for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis, Steyrergasse 17, Graz, 8010, Austria
| | - Martin Obst
- BayCEER Analytics, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, 95440, Germany
| | - Pellegrino Conte
- Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie e Forestali, Università degli Studi di Palermo, v.le delle Scienze ed. 4, Palermo, 90128, Italy
| | - Alba Dieguez-Alonso
- Institute of Energy Engineering, Chair for Energy Process Engineering and Conversion Technologies for Renewable Energies, Technische Universität Berlin, Fasanenstraße 89, Berlin, 10623, Germany
| | - Silvia Orsetti
- Environmental Mineralogy and Chemistry, Center for Applied Geoscience, University of Tuebingen, Sigwartstrasse 10, Tuebingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Edisson Subdiaga
- Environmental Mineralogy and Chemistry, Center for Applied Geoscience, University of Tuebingen, Sigwartstrasse 10, Tuebingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Sebastian Behrens
- Department for Civil, Environmental, and Geo-Engineering, University of Minnesota, 500 Pillsbury Drive S.E, Minneapolis, MN, 55455-0116, USA.,BioTechonology Institute, 140 Gortner Labs, 1479 Gortner Avenue, St. Paul, MN, 55108-6106, USA
| | - Andreas Kappler
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tuebingen, Sigwartstrasse 10, Tuebingen, 72076, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|