The role of anion channels and Ca2+ in addition to K+ channels in the physiological volume regulation of murine spermatozoa

Genome-Wide Identification of Aqp Family Related to Spermatogenesis in Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)

The development and maturation of sperm entails intricate metabolic processes involving water molecules, amino acids, hormones, and various substances. Among these processes, the role of aquaporins (aqps) in the testis is crucial. Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) is a significant marine flatfish species in China; however, natural egg laying in females is not feasible under cultured conditions. Consequently, artificial insemination becomes necessary, requiring the retrieval of sperm and eggs through artificial methods. In this study, we combined genomic, transcriptomics, RT-qPCR, computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA), and immunohistochemistry to investigate the involvement of the aqp family in spermatogenesis in turbot. Through genomic data analysis, we identified 16 aqps genes dispersed across 13 chromosomes, each exhibiting the characteristic major intrinsic protein (MIP) domain associated with AQPs. The results from RNA-seq and RT-qPCR analysis revealed prominent expression of aqp4, 10, and 12 during the proliferative stage, whereas aqp1 showed primary expression during the mature stage. aqp11 displayed high expression levels during both MSII and MSV stages, potentially contributing significantly to the proliferation and maturation of male germ cells. Conversely, aqp8 showed elevated expression levels during the MSIII, MSIII-IV, and MSIV stages, suggesting its direct involvement in spermiogenesis. Immunohistochemical analysis unveiled the predominant localization of AQP1 protein in male germ cells rather than Sertoli cells, specifically concentrated in the head of sperm within cysts. Furthermore, a noteworthy decline in sperm motility was observed when sperm were subjected to treatment with either the AQP1-specific inhibitor (HgCl₂) or the AQP1 antibody. However, no direct correlation was found between the expression of Smaqp1 and sperm quality. Overall, these findings provide new insights into the involvement of aqps in teleost spermatogenesis. Moreover, they hold potential for improving techniques related to sperm activation and cryopreservation, offering valuable knowledge for future advancements in this field.

Aquaporins in Reproductive System

AQP0-12, a total of 13 aquaporins are expressed in the mammalian reproductive system. These aquaporins mediate the transport of water and small solutes across biofilms for maintaining reproductive tract water balance and germ cell water homeostasis. These aquaporins play important roles in the regulation of sperm and egg cell production, maturation, and fertilization processes. Impaired AQP function may lead to diminished male and female fertility. This review focuses on the distribution, function, and regulation of AQPs throughout the male and female reproductive organs and tracts. Their correlation with reproductive success, revealing recent advances in the physiological and pathophysiological roles of aquaporins in the reproductive system.

Deficient LRRC8A-dependent volume-regulated anion channel activity is associated with male infertility in mice

Ion channel-controlled cell volume regulation is of fundamental significance to the physiological function of sperm. In addition to volume regulation, LRRC8A-dependent volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC) activity is involved in cell cycle progression, insulin signaling, and cisplatin resistance. Nevertheless, the contribution of LRRC8A and its dependent VRAC activity in the germ cell lineage remain unknown. By utilizing a spontaneous Lrrc8a mouse mutation (c.1325delTG, p.F443*) and genetically engineered mouse models, we demonstrate that LRRC8A-dependent VRAC activity is essential for male germ cell development and fertility. Lrrc8a-null male germ cells undergo progressive degeneration independent of the apoptotic pathway during postnatal testicular development. Lrrc8a-deficient mouse sperm exhibit multiple morphological abnormalities of the flagella (MMAF), a feature commonly observed in the sperm of infertile human patients. Importantly, we identified a human patient with a rare LRRC8A hypomorphic mutation (c.1634G>A, p.Arg545His) possibly linked to Sertoli cell-only syndrome (SCOS), a male sterility disorder characterized by the loss of germ cells. Thus, LRRC8A is a critical factor required for germ cell development and volume regulation in the mouse, and it might serve as a novel diagnostic and therapeutic target for SCOS patients.

IFT25, an intraflagellar transporter protein dispensable for ciliogenesis in somatic cells, is essential for sperm flagella formation

Intraflagellar transport (IFT) is a conserved mechanism essential for the assembly and maintenance of most eukaryotic cilia and flagella. However, IFT25, a component of the IFT complex, is not required for the formation of cilia in somatic tissues. In mice, the gene is highly expressed in the testis, and its expression is upregulated during the final phase when sperm flagella are formed. To investigate the role of IFT25 in sperm flagella formation, the gene was specifically disrupted in male germ cells. All homozygous knockout mice survived to adulthood and did not show any gross abnormalities. However, all homozygous knockout males were completely infertile. Sperm numbers were reduced and these sperm were completely immotile. Multiple morphological abnormalities were observed in sperm, including round heads, short and bent tails, with some tails showing branched flagella and others with frequent abnormal thicknesses, as well as swollen tips of the tail. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that flagellar accessory structures, including the fibrous sheath and outer dense fibers, were disorganized, and most sperm had also lost the "9+2" microtubule structure. In the testis, IFT25 forms a complex with other IFT proteins. In Ift25 knockout testes, IFT27, an IFT25 binding partner, was missing, and IFT20 and IFT81 levels were also reduced. Our findings suggest that IFT25, although not necessary for the formation of cilia in somatic cells, is indispensable for sperm flagellum formation and male fertility in mice.

Chloride channels are involved in sperm motility and are downregulated in spermatozoa from patients with asthenozoospermia

Human spermatozoa encounter an osmotic decrease from 330 to 290 mOsm l⁻¹ when passing through the female reproductive tract. We aimed to evaluate the role of chloride channels in volume regulation and sperm motility from patients with asthenozoospermia. Spermatozoa were purified using Percoll density gradients. Sperm volume was measured as the forward scatter signal using flow cytometry. Sperm motility was analyzed using computer-aided sperm analysis (CASA). When transferred from an isotonic solution (330 mOsm l⁻¹) to a hypotonic solution (290 mOsm l⁻¹), cell volume was not changed in spermatozoa from normozoospermic men; but increased in those from asthenozoospermic samples. The addition of the chloride channel blockers, 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′- isulfonic acid (DIDS) or 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoic acid (NPPB) to the hypotonic solution caused the normal spermatozoa to swell but did not increase the volume of those from the asthenozoospermic semen. DIDS and NPPB decreased sperm motility in both sets of semen samples. The inhibitory effect of NPPB on normal sperm motility was much stronger than on spermatozoa from the asthenozoospermic samples. Both sperm types expressed ClC-3 chloride channels, but the expression levels in the asthenozoospermic samples were much lower, especially in the neck and mid-piece areas. Spermatozoa from men with asthenozoospermia demonstrated lower volume regulating capacity, mobility, and ClC-3 expression levels (especially in the neck) than did normal spermatozoa. Thus, chloride channels play important roles in the regulation of sperm volume and motility and are downregulated in cases of asthenozoospermia.

Major regulatory mechanisms involved in sperm motility

The genetic bases and molecular mechanisms involved in the assembly and function of the flagellum components as well as in the regulation of the flagellar movement are not fully understood, especially in humans. There are several causes for sperm immotility, of which some can be avoided and corrected, whereas other are related to genetic defects and deserve full investigation to give a diagnosis to patients. This review was performed after an extensive literature search on the online databases PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science. Here, we review the involvement of regulatory pathways responsible for sperm motility, indicating possible causes for sperm immotility. These included the calcium pathway, the cAMP-dependent protein kinase pathway, the importance of kinases and phosphatases, the function of reactive oxygen species, and how the regulation of cell volume and osmolarity are also fundamental components. We then discuss main gene defects associated with specific morphological abnormalities. Finally, we slightly discuss some preventive and treatments approaches to avoid development of conditions that are associated with unspecified sperm immotility. We believe that in the near future, with the development of more powerful techniques, the genetic causes of sperm immotility and the regulatory mechanisms of sperm motility will be better understand, thus enabling to perform a full diagnosis and uncover new therapies.

Aquaporin biology of spermatogenesis and sperm physiology in mammals and teleosts

Fluid homeostasis is recognized as a critical factor during the development, maturation, and function of vertebrate male germ cells. These processes have been associated with the presence of multiple members of the aquaporin superfamily of water and solute channels in different cell types along the reproductive tract as well as in spermatozoa. We present a comparative analysis of the existing knowledge of aquaporin biology in the male reproductive tissues of mammals and teleosts. Current data suggest that in both vertebrate groups, aquaporins may have similar functions during differentiation of spermatozoa in the germinal epithelium, in the concentration and maturation of sperm in the testicular ducts, and in the regulation of osmotically induced volume changes in ejaculated spermatozoa. Recent studies have also provided insight into the possible function of aquaporins beyond water transport, such as in signaling pathways during spermatogenesis or the sensing of cell swelling and mitochondrial peroxide transport in activated sperm. However, an understanding of the specific physiological functions of the various aquaporins during germ cell development and sperm motility, as well as the molecular mechanisms involved, remains elusive. Novel experimental approaches need to be developed to elucidate these processes and to dissect the regulatory intracellular pathways implicated, which will greatly help to uncover the molecular basis of sperm physiology and male fertility in vertebrates.

Osmotic tolerance and intracellular ion concentrations of bovine sperm are affected by cryopreservation

In this study, the effects of cryopreservation on osmoregulation and ion homeostasis in bovine sperm were studied. We determined: (1) the osmotic tolerance limits and cell volume response upon exposure to anisotonic conditions, (2) the intracellular pH and potassium concentration, and (3) expression and localization of proteins encoding for potassium and chloride ion channels. A flow cytometric approach was used for simultaneous assessment of cell volume and viability of propidium iodide stained sperm in anisotonic media. Osmotic tolerance was found to be decreased after cryopreservation, especially in the 120 to 60 mOsm/kg osmotic range. The critical osmolality at which half of the sperm population survived increased from 55 to 89 mOsm/kg. The osmotic cell volume response for viable sperm was similar before and after cryopreservation, with an osmotic inactive volume of about 70%. The intracellular pH, determined by recording changes in carboxyfluorescein fluorescence of sperm in media with different pH before and after addition of digitonin, decreased from 6.28 in diluted sperm to 6.16 after cryopreservation. The intracellular potassium concentration, determined using the potassium ionophore nigericin and incubation in media with various potassium concentrations, increased from 154 mM to 183 mM before and after cryopreservation, respectively. The levels of the chloride and potassium ion channel proteins chloride channel 3 protein (CLC-3) and two pore domain potassium channel 2 protein (TASK-2), as detected using Western blot analysis, were not affected by cryopreservation. Immunolocalization studies showed that CLC-3 is present in the acrosome and midpiece as well as in the upper and lower tail. In conclusion, cryopreserved sperm exhibit reduced tolerance to hypotonic stress, a decreased intracellular pH, and increased intracellular potassium level.

Regulatory volume response following hypotonic stress in Atlantic salmon erythrocytes

The purpose of this study was to examine regulatory volume decrease (RVD) in Atlantic salmon red blood cells (RBCs). Osmotic fragility was determined optically, mean cell volume was measured electronically, and changes in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration were visualized using fluorescence microscopy and fluo-4-AM. Cells displayed an increase in osmotic fragility and an inhibition of volume recovery following hypotonic shock when they were exposed to a high taurine Ringer or when placed in a high K(+) medium. Interestingly, RVD in cells from fish collected during the summer depended more on taurine efflux, whereas fall cells relied more on the loss of K(+). In addition, RVD in fall cells was prevented with the K(+) channel inhibitor quinine, whereas the ionophore gramicidin decreased osmotic fragility and potentiated volume recovery. Further, hypotonic shock (0.5X Ringer) for both summer and fall cells caused an increase in cytosolic Ca(2+), which resulted from influx of this ion because it was not observed when extracellular Ca(2+) was chelated with EGTA (10 nM free Ca(2+)). Cells exposed to a low Ca(2+) hypotonic Ringer also had a greater osmotic fragility and failed to recover from hypotonic swelling. Finally, inhibition of phospholipase A(2) with ONO-RS-082 blocked volume recovery. In conclusion, Atlantic salmon RBCs displayed volume decrease in response to hypotonic shock, which depended on a swelling-induced influx of Ca(2+) and an increase in the efflux of K(+) and taurine.

Swelling-induced Ca²+ influx and K+ efflux in American alligator erythrocytes

The American alligator can hibernate during winter, which may lead to osmotic imbalance because of reduced kidney function and lack of food consumption during this period. Accordingly, we hypothesized that their red blood cells would have a well-developed regulatory volume decrease (RVD) to cope with the homeostatic challenges associated with torpor. Osmotic fragility was determined optically, mean cell volume was measured by electronic sizing, and changes in intracellular Ca²+ concentration were visualized using fluorescence microscopy and fluo-4-AM. Osmotic fragility increased and the ability to regulate volume was inhibited when extracellular Na+ was replaced with K+, or when cells were exposed to the K+ channel inhibitor quinine, indicating a requirement of K+ efflux for RVD. Addition of the ionophore gramicidin to the extracellular medium decreased osmotic fragility and also potentiated volume recovery, even in the presence of quinine. In addition, hypotonic shock (0.5 x Ringer) caused an increase in cytosolic Ca²+, which resulted from Ca²+ influx because it was not observed when extracellular Ca²+ was chelated with EGTA (ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid). Furthermore, cells loaded with BAPTA-AM (1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxymethyl)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid tetrakis(acetoxymethyl) ester) or exposed to a low Ca²+-EGTA hypotonic Ringer had a greater osmotic fragility and also failed to recover from cell swelling, indicating that extracellular Ca²+ was needed for RVD. Gramicidin reversed the inhibitory effect of low extracellular Ca²+. Finally, and surprisingly, the Ca²+ ionophore A23187 increased osmotic fragility and inhibited volume recovery. Taken together, our results show that cell swelling activated a K+ permeable pathway via a Ca²+-dependent mechanism, and this process mediated K+ loss during RVD.

Aquaporin3 is a sperm water channel essential for postcopulatory sperm osmoadaptation and migration

In the journey from the male to female reproductive tract, mammalian sperm experience a natural osmotic decrease (e.g., in mouse, from ~415 mOsm in the cauda epididymis to ~310 mOsm in the uterine cavity). Sperm have evolved to utilize this hypotonic exposure for motility activation, meanwhile efficiently silence the negative impact of hypotonic cell swelling. Previous physiological and pharmacological studies have shown that ion channel-controlled water influx/efflux is actively involved in the process of sperm volume regulation; however, no specific sperm proteins have been found responsible for this rapid osmoadaptation. Here, we report that aquaporin3 (AQP3) is a sperm water channel in mice and humans. Aqp3-deficient sperm show normal motility activation in response to hypotonicity but display increased vulnerability to hypotonic cell swelling, characterized by increased tail bending after entering uterus. The sperm defect is a result of impaired sperm volume regulation and progressive cell swelling in response to physiological hypotonic stress during male-female reproductive tract transition. Time-lapse imaging revealed that the cell volume expansion begins at cytoplasmic droplet, forcing the tail to angulate and form a hairpin-like structure due to mechanical membrane stretch. The tail deformation hampered sperm migration into oviduct, resulting in impaired fertilization and reduced male fertility. These data suggest AQP3 as an essential membrane pathway for sperm regulatory volume decrease (RVD) that balances the "trade-off" between sperm motility and cell swelling upon physiological hypotonicity, thereby optimizing postcopulatory sperm behavior.

Effects of cryoprotectant treatments on bovine sperm function and osmolyte content

The hypothesis that addition and removal of cryoprotectants to and from spermatozoa would initiate regulatory volume decrease, and lead to osmolyte loss and reduced sperm function, was tested. Common cryoprotectants, in the absence of freezing and thawing, affected bovine ejaculated spermatozoa by lowering their total and progressive motility in medium, reducing their migration through surrogate cervical mucus, damaging sperm head membranes and inducing sperm tail coiling. Sperm function was slightly better maintained after cryoprotectants were added and removed in multiple small steps rather than in a single step. The intracellular content of the polyol osmolytes, D-sorbitol and myo-inositol, exceeded that of the zwitterion osmolytes, L-carnitine and L-glutamate. Certain cryoprotectants reduced intracellular L-carnitine and L-glutamate concentration but not that of myo-inositol or D-sorbitol. Multistep treatments with some cryoprotectants had advantages over one-step treatments in mucus penetration depending on the original amount of intracellular carnitine and glutamate in the spermatozoa. Overall, sperm quality was best maintained by multistep treatment with glycerol and propanediols that were associated with decreased intracellular glutamate concentration. Bovine spermatozoa seem to use glutamate to regulate cryoprotectant-induced cell swelling.

Effects of Sinusoidal Magnetic Field Observed on Cell Proliferation, Ion Concentration, and Osmolarity in Two Human Cancer Cell Lines

Low frequency magnetic fields have previously been shown to affect cell functions. In this article, the effects of 20 mT, 50 Hz sinusoidal magnetic field on cell proliferation, ion concentration, and osmolarity in two human cancer cell lines (HL-60 and SK-Hep-1) were investigated. Inhibition of cell growth was observed. On the other hand, the exposure also increased the Na+, K+ ion concentration and osmolarity in cell supernatant compared to the control group. To our knowledge, this is the first study on cancer cells where magnetic fields affect osmolarity in cell supernatant. In addition, a model of cells exposed to the oscillating magnetic field is described as well as the characteristics of ions in and out of cells. The experimental data appears to be consistent with the theoretical analysis. The results are also discussed in terms of the relationships among cell growth, ion concentration, and osmolarity. Magnetic field inhibitions of cell growth in vitro may relate to changes in cell ion concentration and osmolarity.

Peculiar subcellular localization of Fas antigen in human and mouse spermatozoa

The highly polarized structure and function of mammalian spermatozoa dictate that these cells compartmentalize specific metabolic and signaling pathways to regions where they are needed. Fas was initially identified as membrane receptor for pro-apoptotic signals, has been recently recognized as a molecule with pleiotropic functions. In this article, we provide evidence of a peculiar Fas localization: it is closely associated to the perinucleus, mainly at the level of the inner acrosomal membrane, as well as in the inner compartment of mitochondria. Immunoelectron microscopy and Western blot analysis indicated that intracellular Fas was associated with mitochondria in mouse epididymal spermatozoa. Accordingly, also in human ejaculated sperm, immunofluorescence analysis showed Fas localized in the middle piece of sperm flagellum where mitochondria are grouped. The potential functional implications of these findings are discussed.

Aquaporin isoforms involved in physiological volume regulation of murine spermatozoa

Murine epididymal spermatozoa were dispersed in a medium of native osmolality and then transferred to a hypo-osmotic medium to mimic the physiological osmotic challenge, as encountered upon ejaculation into the female tract. The addition of quinine to block sperm K(+)-channels for volume regulation resulted in a size increase of viable cells. Preincubation in 0.1 mM HgCl(2), a standard aquaporin inhibitor, prevented such cell swelling. Addition of the K(+)-ionophore valinomycin to quinine-swollen sperm reversed the swelling, but not after pretreatment of the swollen sperm by HgCl(2). Aqp7, Aqp8, and Aqp9 mRNAs were identified in spermatozoa by RT-PCR, and the entire open reading frames were sequenced and compared with the GenBank database. Western blotting demonstrated specific protein signals for sperm AQP7 and AQP8 expression but probably not AQP9. The role of Hg(2+)-insensitive AQP7, if any, in sperm volume regulation was studied in transgenic mice. Spermatozoa from Aqp7(-/-) mice were the same size as wild-type sperm in basal conditions. Quinine-swollen volume, swelling reversal by valinomycin, and inhibition by Hg(2+) were also similar, indicating efficient water transport in the absence of AQP7. However, both water influx and efflux occurred faster in Aqp7(-/-) sperm than wild-type. This faster water movement in the knockout mouse spermatozoa was explainable by an upregulation of Aqp8 expression as revealed by quantitative PCR. Therefore, the Hg(2+)-sensitive AQP8, which was localized in elongated spermatids and spermatozoa, is a likely candidate for a water channel responsible for physiological sperm volume regulation crucial to in vivo fertilization.

Channels for water efflux and influx involved in volume regulation of murine spermatozoa

The nature of the membrane channels mediating water transport in murine spermatozoa adjusting to anisotonic conditions was investigated. The volume of spermatozoa subjected to physiologically relevant hypotonic conditions either simultaneously, or after isotonic pre-incubation, with putative water transport inhibitors was monitored. Experiments in which quinine prevented osmolyte efflux, and thus regulatory volume decrease (RVD), revealed whether water influx or efflux was being inhibited. There was no evidence that sodium-dependent solute transporters or facilitative glucose transporters were involved in water transport during RVD of murine spermatozoa since phloretin, cytochalasin B and phloridzin had no effect on volume regulation. However, there was evidence that Hg(2+)- and Ag(+)-sensitive channels were involved in water transport and the possibility that they include aquaporin 8 is discussed. Toxic effects of these heavy metals were ruled out by evidence that mitochondrial poisons had no such effect on volume regulation.

Signalling pathways involved in the control of sperm cell volume

The ability to maintain cellular volume is an important general physiological function, which is achieved by specific molecular mechanisms. Hypotonically induced swelling results in the opening of K+ and Cl- ion channels, through which these ions exit with accompanying water loss. This process is known as regulatory volume decrease (RVD). The molecular mechanisms that control the opening of the ion channels in spermatozoa are as yet poorly understood. The present study investigated pathways of osmo-signalling using boar spermatozoa as a model. Spermatozoa were diluted into isotonic and hypotonic Hepes-buffered saline in the presence or absence of effector drugs, and at predetermined intervals volume measurements were performed electronically. Treatment with protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors staurosporine, bismaleimide I and bismaleimide X led to dose-dependent increases of both isotonic and hypotonic volumes (P<0.05). However, as the isotonic volume was affected more than the hypotonic volume, the kinase inhibitors appeared to improve RVD, whereas activation of PKC with phorbol dibutyrate blocked RVD. The increase in isotonic cell volume induced by bismaleimide X was observed in chloride-containing medium but not in the medium in which chloride was replaced by sulphate, implying that PKC was involved in the control of chloride channel activity, e.g. by closing the channel after volume adjustment. The protein phosphatase PP1/PP2 inhibitors calyculin and okadaic acid increased the isotonic volume only slightly but they greatly increased the relative cell volume and blocked RVD. The activation of RVD processes was found to be cAMP-dependent; incubation with forskolin and papaverine improved volume regulation. Moreover, papaverine was able to overcome the negative effect of protein phosphatase inhibitors. The mechanism of sperm RVD appears to involve (a) alterations in protein phosphorylation/dephosphorylation balance brought about by PKC and PP1 and (b) a cAMP-dependent activating pathway.

Sperm maturation in the epididymis: a new look at an old problem

The osmotic challenges facing maturing spermatozoa and their responses to them are discussed in relation to the concept of sperm maturation, defined as the increased ability of more distally recovered epididymal spermatozoa to fertilize eggs when inseminated into the female tract. One explanation could be that the more distal cells are better able to regulate their volume, and reach the oviducts, as a consequence of uptake of epididymal osmolytes. Increased motility, zona binding and oolemma fusion capacities are also acquired within the epididymis and are necessary for those cells that finally arrive at the site of fertilization.

Determinants of sperm quality and fertility in domestic species

Fertilization success cannot be attributed solely to the absolute number of vital, motile, morphologically normal spermatozoa inseminated into the female but more especially to their functional competence. A range ofin vitrotests has therefore been developed to monitor crucial aspects of sperm function: their ability to adapt to changing osmotic conditions, to bind to the oviductal epithelium, and to undergo capacitation in an appropriate and timely manner. The tests employ flow cytometry in conjunction with fluorescent techniques, electronic cell counting, and computer-assisted image area analysis. The highly quantitative analysis provided by electronic sizing and flow cytometry enables assessment of representative cell numbers in a very short time with high reproducibility. More importantly, it allows the detection of physiological heterogeneity within an ejaculate in terms of the development of cell subpopulations and enables the kinetic analysis of changes in living cell suspensions. The tests offer a promising strategy for evaluating fertility in domestic animals. The capability for volume regulation ensures that sperm recover from the tonic shocks experienced at ejaculation and during cryopreservation. Assessment of capacitationin vitroprovides valuable information on both the sperm’s ability to respond to fertilizing conditions and the sequence and rates of ongoing capacitation/destabilization processes. The monitoring of response to capacitating conditions in kinetic terms allows the sensitive and adequate detection of sperm populations expressing fertilization attributes and their ability to respond to external stimuli in a timely manner. However, subfertility is likely to be associated with a suboptimal response (i.e. too high or too low) rather than a minimal response.

ClC-3 chloride channel prevents apoptosis induced by thapsigargin in PC12 cells

Cell volume can be altered by two different ways, swelling and shrinkage. Cell swelling is regulated by volume-regulated Cl- channel (VRC). It is not well understood whether shrinkage is regulated by VRC. We previously found that antisense oligonucleotide specific to ClC-3 (ClC-3 antisense) prevented cell proliferation, which was related to cell swell volume regulation. In the present study, we further studied the role of ClC-3 Cl- channel in cell apoptosis which was related to cell shrinkage volume regulation by using antisense oligonucleotide specific to ClC-3 (ClC-3 antisense) and ClC-3 cDNA transfection techniques. We found that thapsigargin (TG), a specific inhibitor of the endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase, evoked apoptotic morphological changes (including cytoplasmic blebbing, condensation of nuclear chromatin, and the formation of apoptotic bodies), DNA laddering, and caspase-3 activation in PC12 cells (Pheochromocytoma-derived cell line). TG increased the cell apoptotic population with a decrease in cell viability. These effects were consistent with the decrease in endogenous ClC-3 protein expression, which was also induced by TG. Overexpression of ClC-3 significantly inhibited TG effect on PC12 cell apoptosis, whereas the ClC-3 antisense produced opposite effects and facilitated apoptosis induced by TG. Our data strongly suggest that ClC-3 channel in PC12 cells mediates TG-induced apoptotic process through inhibitory mechanism. Thus, it appears that ClC-3 Cl- channel mediates both cell proliferation and apoptosis through accelerative and inhibitory fashions, respectively.

The role of potassium chloride cotransporters in murine and human sperm volume regulation

Spermatozoa need to undergo regulatory volume decrease (RVD) upon ejaculation to counteract swelling due to the hypo-osmolality of female tract fluids. Defects in sperm RVD lead to failure in both cervical mucus penetration in humans and utero-tubal junction passage in mice. The role of K/Cl cotransporters (KCCs) in RVD was investigated by incubation of spermatozoa from the murine cauda epididymidis and from human ejaculates in media mimicking female tract fluid osmolalities in the presence of KCC inhibitors. Furosemide at 100 microM or more caused swelling of murine spermatozoa as detected with a flow cytometer by increased laser forward scatter over 30 to 75 min of incubation. Bumetanide, known to have low affinity for KCCs, was effective at 1 mM, whereas 10 microM and 20 microM of the specific inhibitor DIOA (dihydroindenyl-oxy alkanoic acid) increased cell volume. These drug doses were ineffective in human spermatozoa, which, however, responded to quinine, confirming the occurrence of RVD under control conditions. The molecular identity of the murine KCC isoform involved was determined at both mRNA and protein levels. Conventional RT-PCR indicated the presence of transcripts from Slc12a4 (KCC1), Slc12a6 (KCC3), and Slc12a7 (KCC4) in the testis, whereas RT-nested PCR revealed the latter two isoforms in sperm mRNA. Of these three isoforms, only SLC12A7 (KCC4) was detected in murine sperm protein by Western blotting. Therefore, besides organic osmolyte efflux and KCl release through separate K(+) and Cl(-) ion channels, SLC12A7 also is involved in murine but not human sperm RVD mechanisms.

Physiological volume regulation by spermatozoa

Maturing spermatozoa passing through the epididymis experience increasing osmolality in the luminal environment and mature cells are stored in fluids hyper-osmotic to serum. When ejaculated into the female tract, they encounter a hypo-osmotic challenge which initiates the process of regulatory volume decrease (RVD). Defects in RVD result in hindrance of mucus penetration in man and failure of utero-tubal passage in mice. Epididymal sperm from the mouse and cynomolgus monkey and ejaculated sperm from man and monkey have been isolated and dispersed in media with osmolalities mimicking those of uterine fluid or cervical mucus. The effects of specific and broad-spectrum ion channel blockers indicate the involvement of separate K+ and Cl- channels as well as organic osmolytes in physiological sperm RVD, with mechanisms developed during epididymal maturation. Western blotting and immuno-cytochemistry identify and localise some of these channels which play a crucial role in fertilisation in vivo and could be targets for post-testicular contraception.

Characterization of potassium channels involved in volume regulation of human spermatozoa

Fertility depends in part on the ability of the spermatozoon to respond to osmotic challenges by regulating its volume, which may rely on the movement of K+. These experiments were designed to characterize the K+ channels possibly involved in volume regulation of human ejaculated spermatozoa by simultaneously exposing them to a physiological hypo-osmotic challenge and a wide range of K+ channel inhibitors. Regulation of cellular volume, as measured by flow cytometry, was inhibited when spermatozoa were exposed to quinine (QUI; 0.3 mM), 4-aminopyridine (4AP; 4 mM) and clofilium (CLO; 10 microM) which suggests the involvement of voltage-gated K+ channels Kv1.4, Kv1.5 and Kv1.7, acid-sensitive channel TASK2 and the beta-subunit minK (IsK) in regulatory volume decrease (RVD). QUI and 4AP and, to some extent, CLO also induced hyper activation-like motility. A sensitivity of RVD to pH could not be demonstrated in spermatozoa to support the involvement of TASK2 channels. Western blotting indicated the presence of Kv1.5, TASK2, TASK3 and minK channel proteins, but not Kv1.4. Furthermore, Kv1.5, minK and TASK2 were localized to various regions of the spermatozoa. Although Kv1.4, Kv1.7, TASK2 and TASK3 channels may have important roles in human spermatozoa, Kv1.5 and minK appear to be the most likely candidates for human sperm RVD, serving as targets for non-hormonal contraception.

Chloride Channels in Physiological Volume Regulation of Human Spermatozoa1

As with other mammalian species, human spermatozoa experience a decrease in extracellular osmolarity in cervical mucus upon ejaculation, which requires the efflux of osmolytes and water to counteract swelling that hinders mucus penetration. Recent evidence for the operation of K+ channels in the process of volume regulation suggests parallel involvement of Cl-/anion channels for electro-neutrality as in somatic cells. This was studied using ejaculated spermatozoa washed at seminal osmolality and incubated for 30 min in a medium of mucus osmolality in the presence of Cl- channel blockers. Increases in cell size measured as laser forward-scatter by flow cytometry were detected in the presence of 100 microM 5-nitro-2(3-phenylpropylamino) benzoic acid, 400 microM diisothiocyanato-stilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid, and 20 microM tamoxifen. No volume changes were found with 400 microM 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanato-stilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid, 200 microM verapamil, or niflumic acid, whereas 1 mM niflumic acid induced shrinkage. Among the candidate channel proteins, Western blotting revealed the presence of ClC-3 (CLCN3) at 87 kDa, but the absence of ClC-2 (CLCN2) from sperm proteins in all samples tested. ICln (CLNS1A) was found in only one of eight samples. Immunocytochemistry localized CLCN3 to the sperm tail. To confirm molecular identities, sperm mRNA was extracted and checked for quality by the presence of protamine 2 transcripts and the absence of sperm DNA and leukocyte mRNA using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Transcripts of Clcn3 were found in all samples and that of Clns1a in some but not all samples. Clcn3 was therefore considered the most likely candidate of Cl- channel involved in volume regulation of human sperm.