The biology of the germ line in echinoderms

Germ fate determinants protect germ precursor cell division by reducing septin and anillin levels at the cell division plane

Animal cell cytokinesis, or the physical division of one cell into two, is thought to be driven by constriction of an actomyosin contractile ring at the division plane. The mechanisms underlying cell type-specific differences in cytokinesis remain unknown. Germ cells are totipotent cells that pass genetic information to the next generation. Previously, using formincyk-1(ts) mutant Caenorhabditis elegans 4-cell embryos, we found that the P2 germ precursor cell is protected from cytokinesis failure and can divide with greatly reduced F-actin levels at the cell division plane. Here, we identified two canonical germ fate determinants required for P2-specific cytokinetic protection: PIE-1 and POS-1. Neither has been implicated previously in cytokinesis. These germ fate determinants protect P2 cytokinesis by reducing the accumulation of septinUNC-59 and anillinANI-1 at the division plane, which here act as negative regulators of cytokinesis. These findings may provide insight into the regulation of cytokinesis in other cell types, especially in stem cells with high potency.

Annelids as models of germ cell and gonad regeneration

Germ cells (reproductive cells and their progenitors) give rise to the next generation in sexually reproducing organisms. The loss or removal of germ cells often leads to sterility in established research organisms such as the fruit fly, nematodes, frog, and mouse. The failure to regenerate germ cells in these organisms reinforced the dogma of germline-soma barrier in which germ cells are set-aside during embryogenesis and cannot be replaced by somatic cells. However, in stark contrast, many animals including segmented worms (annelids), hydrozoans, planaria, sea stars, sea urchins, and tunicates can regenerate germ cells. Here I review germ cell and gonad regeneration in annelids, a rich history of research that dates back to the early 20th century in this highly regenerative group. Examples include annelids from across the annelid phylogeny, across developmental stages, and reproductive strategies. Adult annelids regenerate germ cells as a part of regeneration, grafting, and asexual reproduction. Annelids can also recover germ cells after ablation of germ cell progenitors in the embryos. I present a framework to investigate cellular sources of germ cell regeneration in annelids, and discuss the literature that supports different possibilities within this framework, where germ-soma separation may or may not be preserved. With contemporary genetic-lineage tracing and bioinformatics tools, and several genetically enabled annelid models, we are at the brink of answering the big questions that puzzled many for over more than a century.

A full-body transcription factor expression atlas with completely resolved cell identities in C. elegans

Invariant cell lineage in C. elegans enables spatiotemporal resolution of transcriptional regulatory mechanisms controlling the fate of each cell. Here, we develop RAPCAT (Robust-point-matching- And Piecewise-affine-based Cell Annotation Tool) to automate cell identity assignment in three-dimensional image stacks of L1 larvae and profile reporter expression of 620 transcription factors in every cell. Transcription factor profile-based clustering analysis defines 80 cell types distinct from conventional phenotypic cell types and identifies three general phenotypic modalities related to these classifications. First, transcription factors are broadly downregulated in quiescent stage Hermaphrodite Specific Neurons, suggesting stage- and cell type-specific variation in transcriptome size. Second, transcription factor expression is more closely associated with morphology than other phenotypic modalities in different pre- and post-differentiation developmental stages. Finally, embryonic cell lineages can be associated with specific transcription factor expression patterns and functions that persist throughout postembryonic life. This study presents a comprehensive transcription factor atlas for investigation of intra-cell type heterogeneity.

Germ fate determinants protect germ precursor cell division by restricting septin and anillin levels at the division plane

Animal cell cytokinesis, or the physical division of one cell into two, is thought to be driven by constriction of an actomyosin contractile ring at the division plane. The mechanisms underlying cell type-specific differences in cytokinesis remain unknown. Germ cells are totipotent cells that pass genetic information to the next generation. Previously, using formin cyk-1 (ts) mutant C. elegans embryos, we found that the P2 germ precursor cell is protected from cytokinesis failure and can divide without detectable F-actin at the division plane. Here, we identified two canonical germ fate determinants required for P2-specific cytokinetic protection: PIE-1 and POS-1. Neither has been implicated previously in cytokinesis. These germ fate determinants protect P2 cytokinesis by reducing the accumulation of septin UNC-59 and anillin ANI-1 at the division plane, which here act as negative regulators of cytokinesis. These findings may provide insight into cytokinetic regulation in other cell types, especially in stem cells with high potency.

Sex-specific expression of pheromones and other signals in gravid starfish

BACKGROUND

Many echinoderms form seasonal aggregations prior to spawning. In some fecund species, a spawning event can lead to population outbreaks with detrimental ecosystem impacts. For instance, outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS), a corallivore, can destroy coral reefs. Here, we examine the gene expression in gravid male and female COTS prior to spawning in the wild, to identify genome-encoded factors that may regulate aggregation and spawning. This study is informed by a previously identified exoproteome that attracts conspecifics. To capture the natural gene expression profiles, we isolated RNAs from gravid female and male COTS immediately after they were removed from the Great Barrier Reef.  RESULTS: Sexually dimorphic gene expression is present in all seven somatic tissues and organs that we surveyed and in the gonads. Approximately 40% of the exoproteome transcripts are differentially expressed between sexes. Males uniquely upregulate an additional 68 secreted factors in their testes. A suite of neuropeptides in sensory organs, coelomocytes and gonads is differentially expressed between sexes, including the relaxin-like gonad-stimulating peptide and gonadotropin-releasing hormones. Female sensory tentacles-chemosensory organs at the distal tips of the starfish arms-uniquely upregulate diverse receptors and signalling molecules, including chemosensory G-protein-coupled receptors and several neuropeptides, including kisspeptin, SALMFamide and orexin.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of 103 tissue/organ transcriptomes from 13 wild COTS has revealed genes that are consistently differentially expressed between gravid females and males and that all tissues surveyed are sexually dimorphic at the molecular level. This finding is consistent with female and male COTS using sex-specific pheromones to regulate reproductive aggregations and synchronised spawning events. These pheromones appear to be received primarily by the sensory tentacles, which express a range of receptors and signalling molecules in a sex-specific manner. Furthermore, coelomocytes and gonads differentially express signalling and regulatory factors that control gametogenesis and spawning in other echinoderms.

Multicellularity in animals: The potential for within-organism conflict

Metazoans function as individual organisms but also as “colonies” of cells whose single-celled ancestors lived and reproduced independently. Insights from evolutionary biology about multicellular group formation help us understand the behavior of cells: why they cooperate, and why cooperation sometimes breaks down. Current explanations for multicellularity focus on two aspects of development which promote cooperation and limit conflict among cells: a single-cell bottleneck, which creates organisms composed of clones, and a separation of somatic and germ cell lineages, which reduces the selective advantage of cheating. However, many obligately multicellular organisms thrive with neither, creating the potential for within-organism conflict. Here, we argue that the prevalence of such organisms throughout the Metazoa requires us to refine our preconceptions of conflict-free multicellularity. Evolutionary theory must incorporate developmental mechanisms across a broad range of organisms—such as unusual reproductive strategies, totipotency, and cell competition—while developmental biology must incorporate evolutionary principles. To facilitate this cross-disciplinary approach, we provide a conceptual overview from evolutionary biology for developmental biologists, using analogous examples in the well-studied social insects.

Post-transcriptional regulation of factors important for the germ line

Echinoderms are a major model system for many general aspects of biology, including mechanisms of gene regulation. Analysis of transcriptional regulation (Gene regulatory networks, direct DNA-binding of proteins to specific cis-elements, and transgenesis) has contributed to our understanding of how an embryo works. This chapter looks at post-transcriptional gene regulation in the context of how the primordial germ cells are formed, and how the factors essential for this process are regulated. Important in echinoderms, as in many embryos, is that key steps of fate determination are made post-transcriptionally. This chapter highlights these steps uncovered in sea urchins and sea stars, and links them to a general theme of how the germ line may regulate its fate differently than many of the embryo's somatic cell lineages.

A conserved node in the regulation of Vasa between an induced and an inherited program of primordial germ cell specification

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are specified by diverse mechanisms in early development. In some animals, PGCs are specified via inheritance of maternal determinants, while in others, in a process thought to represent the ancestral mode, PGC fate is induced by cell interactions. Although the terminal factors expressed in specified germ cells are widely conserved, the mechanisms by which these factors are regulated can be widely diverse. Here we show that a post-translational mechanism of germ cell specification is conserved between two echinoderm species thought to employ divergent germ line segregation strategies. Sea urchins segregate their germ line early by an inherited mechanism. The DEAD-box RNA - helicase Vasa, a conserved germline factor, becomes enriched in the PGCs by degradation in future somatic cells by the E3-ubiquitin-ligase Gustavus (Gustafson et al., 2011). This post-translational activity occurs early in development, substantially prior to gastrulation. Here we test this process in germ cell specification of sea star embryos, which use inductive signaling mechanisms after gastrulation for PGC fate determination. We find that Vasa-GFP protein becomes restricted to the PGCs in the sea star even though the injected mRNA is present throughout the embryo. Gustavus depletion, however, results in uniform accumulation of the protein. These data demonstrate that Gustavus-mediated Vasa turnover in somatic cells is conserved between species with otherwise divergent PGC specification mechanisms. Since Gustavus was originally identified in Drosophila melanogaster to have similar functions in Vasa regulation (Kugler et al., 2010), we conclude that this node of Vasa regulation in PGC formation is ancestral and evolutionarily transposable from the ancestral, induced PGC specification program to an inherited PGC specification mechanism.

Somatic cell conversion to a germ cell lineage: A violation or a revelation?

The germline is unique and immortal (or at least its genome is). It is able to perform unique jobs (meiosis) and is selected for genetic changes. Part of being this special also means that entry into the germline club is restricted and cells of the soma are always left out. However, the recent evidence from multiple animals now suggests that somatic cells may join the club and become germline cells in an animal when the original germline is removed. This "violation" may have garnered acceptance by the observation that iPScells, originating experimentally from somatic cells of an adult, can form reproductively successful eggs and sperm, all in vitro. Each of the genes and their functions used to induce pluripotentiality are found normally in the cell and the in vitro conditions to direct germline commitment replicate conditions in vivo. Here, we discuss evidence from three different animals: an ascidian, a segmented worm, and a sea urchin; and that the cells of a somatic cell lineage can convert into the germline in vivo. We discuss the consequences of such transitions and provide thoughts as how this process may have equal precision to the original germline formation of an embryo.

Primordial Germ Cell Specification in Vertebrate Embryos: Phylogenetic Distribution and Conserved Molecular Features of Preformation and Induction

The differentiation of primordial germ cells (PGCs) occurs during early embryonic development and is critical for the survival and fitness of sexually reproducing species. Here, we review the two main mechanisms of PGC specification, induction, and preformation, in the context of four model vertebrate species: mouse, axolotl, Xenopus frogs, and zebrafish. We additionally discuss some notable molecular characteristics shared across PGC specification pathways, including the shared expression of products from three conserved germline gene families, DAZ (Deleted in Azoospermia) genes, nanos-related genes, and DEAD-box RNA helicases. Then, we summarize the current state of knowledge of the distribution of germ cell determination systems across kingdom Animalia, with particular attention to vertebrate species, but include several categories of invertebrates - ranging from the "proto-vertebrate" cephalochordates to arthropods, cnidarians, and ctenophores. We also briefly highlight ongoing investigations and potential lines of inquiry that aim to understand the evolutionary relationships between these modes of specification.

CRISPR-Cas9 editing of non-coding genomic loci as a means of controlling gene expression in the sea urchin

We seek to manipulate gene function here through CRISPR-Cas9 editing of cis-regulatory sequences, rather than the more typical mutation of coding regions. This approach would minimize secondary effects of cellular responses to nonsense mediated decay pathways or to mutant protein products by premature stops. This strategy also allows for reducing gene activity in cases where a complete gene knockout would result in lethality, and it can be applied to the rapid identification of key regulatory sites essential for gene expression. We tested this strategy here with genes of known function as a proof of concept, and then applied it to examine the upstream genomic region of the germline gene Nanos2 in the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. We first used CRISPR-Cas9 to target established genomic cis-regulatory regions of the skeletogenic cell transcription factor, Alx1, and the TGF-β signaling ligand, Nodal, which produce obvious developmental defects when altered in sea urchin embryos. Importantly, mutation of cis-activator sites (Alx1) and cis-repressor sites (Nodal) result in the predicted decreased and increased transcriptional output, respectively. Upon identification of efficient gRNAs by genomic mutations, we then used the same validated gRNAs to target a deadCas9-VP64 transcriptional activator to increase Nodal transcription directly. Finally, we paired these new methodologies with a more traditional, GFP reporter construct approach to further our understanding of the transcriptional regulation of Nanos2, a key gene required for germ cell identity in S. purpuratus. With a series of reporter assays, upstream Cas9-promoter targeted mutagenesis, coupled with qPCR and in situ RNA hybridization, we concluded that the promoter of Nanos2 drives strong mRNA expression in the sea urchin embryo, indicating that its primordial germ cell (PGC)-specific restriction may rely instead on post-transcriptional regulation. Overall, we present a proof-of-principle tool-kit of Cas9-mediated manipulations of promoter regions that should be applicable in most cells and embryos for which CRISPR-Cas9 is employed.

Limitations of cross- and multigenerational plasticity for marine invertebrates faced with global climate change

Although cross generation (CGP) and multigenerational (MGP) plasticity have been identified as mechanisms of acclimation to global change, the weight of evidence indicates that parental conditioning over generations is not a panacea to rescue stress sensitivity in offspring. For many species, there were no benefits of parental conditioning. Even when improved performance was observed, this waned over time within a generation or across generations and fitness declined. CGP and MGP studies identified resilient species with stress tolerant genotypes in wild populations and selected family lines. Several bivalves possess favourable stress tolerance and phenotypically plastic traits potentially associated with genetic adaptation to life in habitats where they routinely experience temperature and/or acidification stress. These traits will be important to help 'climate proof' shellfish ventures. Species that are naturally stress tolerant and those that naturally experience a broad range of environmental conditions are good candidates to provide insights into the physiological and molecular mechanisms involved in CGP and MGP. It is challenging to conduct ecologically relevant global change experiments over the long times commensurate with the pace of changing climate. As a result, many studies present stressors in a shock-type exposure at rates much faster than projected scenarios. With more gradual stressor introduction over longer experimental durations and in context with conditions species are currently acclimatized and/or adapted to, the outcomes for sensitive species might differ. We highlight the importance to understand primordial germ cell development and the timing of gametogenesis with respect to stressor exposure. Although multigenerational exposure to global change stressors currently appears limited as a universal tool to rescue species in the face of changing climate, natural proxies of future conditions (upwelling zones, CO₂ vents, naturally warm habitats) show that phenotypic adjustment and/or beneficial genetic selection is possible for some species, indicating complex plasticity-adaptation interactions.

Distinct transcriptional regulation of Nanos2 in the germ line and soma by the Wnt and delta/notch pathways

Specification of the primordial germ cells (PGCs) is essential for sexually reproducing animals. Although the mechanisms of PGC specification are diverse between organisms, the RNA binding protein Nanos is consistently required in the germ line in all species tested. How Nanos is selectively expressed in the germ line, however, remains largely elusive. We report that in sea urchin embryos, the early expression of Nanos2 in the PGCs requires the maternal Wnt pathway. During gastrulation, however, Nanos2 expression expands into adjacent somatic mesodermal cells and this secondary Nanos expression instead requires Delta/Notch signaling through the forkhead family member FoxY. Each of these transcriptional regulators were tested by chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis and found to directly interact with a DNA locus upstream of Nanos2. Given the conserved importance of Nanos in germ line specification, and the derived character of the micromeres and small micromeres in the sea urchin, we propose that the ancestral mechanism of Nanos2 expression in echinoderms was by induction in mesodermal cells during gastrulation.

The maternal-to-zygotic transition revisited

The development of animal embryos is initially directed by maternal gene products. Then, during the maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT), developmental control is handed to the zygotic genome. Extensive research in both vertebrate and invertebrate model organisms has revealed that the MZT can be subdivided into two phases, during which very different modes of gene regulation are implemented: initially, regulation is exclusively post-transcriptional and post-translational, following which gradual activation of the zygotic genome leads to predominance of transcriptional regulation. These changes in the gene expression program of embryos are precisely controlled and highly interconnected. Here, we review current understanding of the mechanisms that underlie handover of developmental control during the MZT.

Methods to label, isolate, and image sea urchin small micromeres, the primordial germ cells (PGCs)

Small micromeres of the sea urchin are believed to be primordial germ cells (PGCs), fated to give rise to sperm or eggs in the adult. Sea urchin PGCs are formed at the fifth cleavage, undergo one additional division during blastulation, and migrate to the coelomic pouches of the pluteus larva. The goal of this chapter is to detail classical and modern techniques used to analyze primordial germ cell specification, gene expression programs, and cell behaviors in fixed and live embryos. The transparency of the sea urchin embryo enables both live imaging techniques and in situ RNA hybridization and immunolabeling for a detailed molecular characterization of these cells. Four approaches are presented to highlight small micromeres with fluorescent molecules for analysis by live and fixed cell microscopy: (1) small molecule dye accumulation during cleavage and blastula stages, (2) primordial germ cell targeted RNA expression using the Nanos untranslated regions, (3) fusing genes of interest with a Nanos2 targeting peptide, and (4) EdU and BrdU labeling. Applications of the live labeling techniques are discussed, including sorting by fluorescence-activated cell sorting for transcriptomic analysis, and, methods to image small micromere behavior in whole and dissociated embryos by live confocal microscopy. Finally, summary table of antibody and RNA probes as well as small molecule dyes to label small micromeres at a variety of developmental stages is provided.

Nodal induces sequential restriction of germ cell factors during primordial germ cell specification

Specification of the germ cell lineage is required for sexual reproduction in animals. The mechanism of germ cell specification varies among animals but roughly clusters into either inherited or inductive mechanisms. The inductive mechanism, the use of cell-cell interactions for germ cell specification, appears to be the ancestral mechanism in animal phylogeny, yet the pathways responsible for this process are only recently surfacing. Here, we show that germ cell factors in the sea star initially are present broadly, then become restricted dorsally and then in the left side of the embryo where the germ cells form a posterior enterocoel. We find that Nodal signaling is required for the restriction of two germ cell factors, Nanos and Vasa, during the early development of this animal. We learned that Nodal inhibits germ cell factor accumulation in three ways including: inhibition of specific transcription, degradation of specific mRNAs and inhibition of tissue morphogenesis. These results document a signaling mechanism required for the sequential restriction of germ cell factors, which causes a specific set of embryonic cells to become the primordial germ cells.

Kif2 localizes to a subdomain of cortical endoplasmic reticulum that drives asymmetric spindle position

Asymmetric positioning of the mitotic spindle is a fundamental process responsible for creating sibling cell size asymmetry; however, how the cortex causes the depolymerization of astral microtubules during asymmetric spindle positioning has remained elusive. Early ascidian embryos possess a large cortical subdomain of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that causes asymmetric spindle positioning driving unequal cell division. Here we show that the microtubule depolymerase Kif2 localizes to this subdomain of cortical ER. Rapid live-cell imaging reveals that microtubules are less abundant in the subdomain of cortical ER. Inhibition of Kif2 function prevents the development of mitotic aster asymmetry and spindle pole movement towards the subdomain of cortical ER, whereas locally increasing microtubule depolymerization causes exaggerated asymmetric spindle positioning. This study shows that the microtubule depolymerase Kif2 is localized to a cortical subdomain of endoplasmic reticulum that is involved in asymmetric spindle positioning during unequal cell division.

Early ascidian embryos have a cortical subdomain of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that controls asymmetric spindle positioning driving unequal cell division. Here the authors show that the microtubule depolymerase Kif2 is localized to a cortical subdomain of the ER that is involved in asymmetric spindle positioning.

Transient translational quiescence in primordial germ cells

Stem cells in animals often exhibit a slow cell cycle and/or low transcriptional activity referred to as quiescence. Here, we report that the translational activity in the primordial germ cells (PGCs) of the sea urchin embryo (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) is quiescent. We measured new protein synthesis with O-propargyl-puromycin and L-homopropargylglycine Click-iT technologies, and determined that these cells synthesize protein at only 6% the level of their adjacent somatic cells. Knockdown of translation of the RNA-binding protein Nanos2 by morpholino antisense oligonucleotides, or knockout of the Nanos2 gene by CRISPR/Cas9 resulted in a significant, but partial, increase (47%) in general translation specifically in the PGCs. We found that the mRNA of the translation factor eEF1A is excluded from the PGCs in a Nanos2-dependent manner, a consequence of a Nanos/Pumilio response element (PRE) in its 3'UTR. In addition to eEF1A, the cytoplasmic pH of the PGCs appears to repress translation and simply increasing the pH also significantly restores translation selectively in the PGCs. We conclude that the PGCs of this sea urchin institute parallel pathways to quiesce translation thoroughly but transiently.

Differential Nanos 2 protein stability results in selective germ cell accumulation in the sea urchin

Nanos is a translational regulator required for the survival and maintenance of primordial germ cells. In the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (Sp), Nanos 2 mRNA is broadly transcribed but accumulates specifically in the small micromere (sMic) lineage, in part because of the 3'UTR element GNARLE leads to turnover in somatic cells but retention in the sMics. Here we found that the Nanos 2 protein is also selectively stabilized; it is initially translated throughout the embryo but turned over in the future somatic cells and retained only in the sMics, the future germ line in this animal. This differential stability of Nanos protein is dependent on the open reading frame (ORF), and is independent of the sumoylation and ubiquitylation pathways. Manipulation of the ORF indicates that 68 amino acids in the N terminus of the Nanos protein are essential for its stability in the sMics whereas a 45 amino acid element adjacent to the zinc fingers targets its degradation. Further, this regulation of Nanos protein is cell autonomous, following formation of the germ line. These results are paradigmatic for the unique presence of Nanos in the germ line by a combination of selective RNA retention, distinctive translational control mechanisms (Oulhen et al., 2013), and now also by defined Nanos protein stability.

The diversity of nanos expression in echinoderm embryos supports different mechanisms in germ cell specification

Specification of the germ cell lineage is required for sexual reproduction in all animals. However, the timing and mechanisms of germ cell specification is remarkably diverse in animal development. Echinoderms, such as sea urchins and sea stars, are excellent model systems to study the molecular and cellular mechanisms that contribute to germ cell specification. In several echinoderm embryos tested, the germ cell factor Vasa accumulates broadly during early development and is restricted after gastrulation to cells that contribute to the germ cell lineage. In the sea urchin, however, the germ cell factor Vasa is restricted to a specific lineage by the 32-cell stage. We therefore hypothesized that the germ cell specification program in the sea urchin/Euechinoid lineage has evolved to an earlier developmental time point. To test this hypothesis we determined the expression pattern of a second germ cell factor, Nanos, in four out of five extant echinoderm clades. Here we find that Nanos mRNA does not accumulate until the blastula stage or later during the development of all other echinoderm embryos except those that belong to the Echinoid lineage. Instead, Nanos is expressed in a restricted domain at the 32-128 cell stage in Echinoid embryos. Our results support the model that the germ cell specification program underwent a heterochronic shift in the Echinoid lineage. A comparison of Echinoid and non-Echinoid germ cell specification mechanisms will contribute to our understanding of how these mechanisms have changed during animal evolution.

Germ Line Mechanics--And Unfinished Business

Primordial germ cells are usually made early in the development of an organism. These are the mother of all stem cells that are necessary for propagation of the species, yet use highly diverse mechanisms between organisms. How they are specified, and when and where they form, are central to developmental biology. Using diverse organisms to study this development is illuminating for understanding the mechanics these cells use in this essential function and for identifying the breadth of evolutionary changes that have occurred between species. This essay emphasizes how echinoderms may contribute to the patchwork quilt of our understanding of germ line formation during embryogenesis.

Mechanisms of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in sea urchin embryos

Sea urchin mesenchyme is composed of the large micromere-derived spiculogenetic primary mesenchyme cells (PMC), veg2-tier macromere-derived non-spiculogenetic mesenchyme cells, the small micromere-derived germ cells, and the macro- and mesomere-derived neuronal mesenchyme cells. They are formed through the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and possess multipotency, except PMCs that solely differentiate larval spicules. The process of EMT is associated with modification of epithelial cell surface property that includes loss of affinity to the apical and basal extracellular matrices, inter-epithelial cell adherens junctions and epithelial cell surface-specific proteins. These cell surface structures and molecules are endocytosed during EMT and utilized as initiators of cytoplasmic signaling pathways that often initiate protein phosphorylation to activate the gene regulatory networks. Acquisition of cell motility after EMT in these mesenchyme cells is associated with the expression of proteins such as Lefty, Snail and Seawi. Structural simplicity and genomic database of this model will further promote detailed EMT research.

Deployment of a retinal determination gene network drives directed cell migration in the sea urchin embryo

Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) provide a systems-level orchestration of an organism's genome encoded anatomy. As biological networks are revealed, they continue to answer many questions including knowledge of how GRNs control morphogenetic movements and how GRNs evolve. The migration of the small micromeres to the coelomic pouches in the sea urchin embryo provides an exceptional model for understanding the genomic regulatory control of morphogenesis. An assay using the robust homing potential of these cells reveals a ‘coherent feed-forward’ transcriptional subcircuit composed of Pax6, Six3, Six1/2, Eya, and Dach1 that is responsible for the directed homing mechanism of these multipotent progenitors. The linkages of that circuit are strikingly similar to a circuit involved in retinal specification in Drosophila suggesting that systems-level tasks can be highly conserved even though the tasks drive unrelated processes in different animals.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.08827.001

Within an animal embryo, groups of cells tend to move, or migrate, between different areas before they form into tissues and organs. These cell migrations are regulated by hundreds of genes, which must be expressed at the right time and in the right place. Cells use proteins called transcription factors to regulate the expression of genes. These proteins work together in circuit board-like networks called gene regulatory networks in order to drive different aspects of development, including cell migration.

The sea urchin is a useful model organism to study how animals develop. This is because these marine animals express many of the same genes as humans, but they can be easily manipulated and studied in the laboratory. In a developing sea urchin embryo, cells called the small micromeres move towards one end of animal and get incorporated into a pocket-like structure known as the coelomic pouch. From this pouch, these cells mature and eventually contribute to the adult germ cells (the precursors to the sperm and eggs).

Martik and McClay have now analyzed how small micromeres make their way to their final location in the coelomic pouch. Micromeres were labeled with a dye that fluoresces green so that they could be tracked under a microscope. This revealed that, like other moving cells, micromeres actively change their shape as they migrate. Furthermore, when micromeres were experimentally moved to abnormal locations in the sea urchin embryo, they were still able to actively home in on the coelomic pouch no matter their starting location.

Martik and McClay then identified five transcription factors expressed in the coelomic pouch in the sea urchin that are involved in this homing activity. Reducing the expression of any of these transcription factors was enough to hinder the ability of the micromeres to find their way to the coelomic pouch. Further experiments and analysis then revealed that these five transcription factors work together in a sub-circuit, which is in turn embedded in a larger gene regulatory network.

This sub-circuit that drives cell migration is unexpectedly similar to another circuit in the fruit fly Drosophila. Intriguingly, the sub-circuit in the fly controls eye development, which is unrelated to cell homing and migration. These observations raise the possibility that this circuit has been conserved as a unit over millions of years of evolution and redeployed in new networks under completely different circumstances. The data also suggest the possibility that additional conserved sub-circuits will be identified as more systems are analyzed in detail.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.08827.002

Germ Line Versus Soma in the Transition from Egg to Embryo

With few exceptions, all animals acquire the ability to produce eggs or sperm at some point in their life cycle. Despite this near-universal requirement for sexual reproduction, there exists an incredible diversity in germ line development. For example, animals exhibit a vast range of differences in the timing at which the germ line, which retains reproductive potential, separates from the soma, or terminally differentiated, nonreproductive cells. This separation may occur during embryonic development, after gastrulation, or even in adults, depending on the organism. The molecular mechanisms of germ line segregation are also highly diverse, and intimately intertwined with the overall transition from a fertilized egg to an embryo. The earliest embryonic stages of many species are largely controlled by maternally supplied factors. Later in development, patterning control shifts to the embryonic genome and, concomitantly with this transition, the maternally supplied factors are broadly degraded. This chapter attempts to integrate these processes--germ line segregation, and how the divergence of germ line and soma may utilize the egg to embryo transitions differently. In some embryos, this difference is subtle or maybe lacking altogether, whereas in other embryos, this difference in utilization may be a key step in the divergence of the two lineages. Here, we will focus our discussion on the echinoderms, and in particular the sea urchins, in which recent studies have provided mechanistic understanding in germ line determination. We propose that the germ line in sea urchins requires an acquisition of maternal factors from the egg and, when compared to other members of the taxon, this appears to be a derived mechanism. The acquisition is early--at the 32-cell stage--and involves active protection of maternal mRNAs, which are instead degraded in somatic cells with the maternal-to-embryonic transition. We collectively refer to this model as the Time Capsule method for germ line determination.

Migration of sea urchin primordial germ cells

BACKGROUND

Small micromeres are produced at the fifth cleavage of sea urchin development. They express markers of primordial germ cells (PGCs), and are required for the production of gametes. In most animals, PGCs migrate from sites of formation to the somatic gonad. Here, we investigated whether they also exhibit similar migratory behaviors using live-cell imaging of small micromere plasma membranes.

RESULTS

Early in gastrulation, small micromeres transition from non-motile epithelial cells, to motile quasi-mesenchymal cells. Late in gastrulation, at 43 hr post fertilization (HPF), they are embedded in the tip of the archenteron, but remain motile. From 43-49 HPF, they project numerous cortical blebs into the blastocoel, and filopodia that contact ectoderm. By 54 HPF, they begin moving in the plane of the blastoderm, often in a directed fashion, towards the coelomic pouches. Isolated small micromeres also produced blebs and filopodia.

CONCLUSIONS

Previous work suggested that passive translocation governs some of the movement of small micromeres during gastrulation. Here we show that small micromeres are motile cells that can traverse the archenteron, change position along the left-right axis, and migrate to coelomic pouches. These motility mechanisms are likely to play an important role in their left-right segregation.

Selective accumulation of germ-line associated gene products in early development of the sea star and distinct differences from germ-line development in the sea urchin

BACKGROUND

Echinodermata is a diverse phylum, a sister group to chordates, and contains diverse organisms that may be useful to understand varied mechanisms of germ-line specification.

RESULTS

We tested 23 genes in development of the sea star Patiria miniata that fall into five categories: (1) Conserved germ-line factors; (2) Genes involved in the inductive mechanism of germ-line specification; (3) Germ-line associated genes; (4) Molecules involved in left-right asymmetry; and (5) Genes involved in regulation and maintenance of the genome during early embryogenesis. Overall, our results support the contention that the posterior enterocoel is a source of the germ line in the sea star P. miniata.

CONCLUSIONS

The germ line in this organism appears to be specified late in embryogenesis, and in a pattern more consistent with inductive interactions amongst cells. This is distinct from the mechanism seen in sea urchins, a close relative of the sea star clad. We propose that P. miniata may serve as a valuable model to study inductive mechanisms of germ-cell specification and when compared with germ-line formation in the sea urchin S. purpuratus may reveal developmental transitions that occur in the evolution of inherited and inductive mechanisms of germ-line specification.

Piwi regulates Vasa accumulation during embryogenesis in the sea urchin

BACKGROUND

Piwi proteins are essential for germ line development, stem cell maintenance, and more recently found to function in epigenetic and somatic gene regulation. In the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, two Piwi proteins, Seawi and Piwi-like1, have been identified, yet their functional contributions have not been reported.

RESULTS

Here we found that Seawi protein was localized uniformly in the early embryo and then became enriched in the primordial germ cells (PGCs) (the small micromere lineage) from blastula stage and thereafter. Morpholino knockdown of Sp-seawi diminished PGC-specific localization of Seawi proteins, and altered expression of other germ line markers such as Vasa and Gustavus, but had no effect on Nanos. Furthermore, Seawi knockdown transiently resulted in Vasa positive cell proliferation in the right coelomic pouch that appear to be derived from the small micromere lineage, yet they quickly disappeared with an indication of apoptosis by larval stage. Severe Seawi knockdown resulted in an increased number of apoptotic cells in the entire gut area.

CONCLUSION

Piwi proteins appear to regulate PGC proliferation perhaps through control of Vasa accumulation. In this organism, Piwi is likely regulating mRNAs, not just transposons, and is potentially functioning both inside and outside of the germ line during embryogenesis.