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Su Y, Song Y. The new challenge of “exercise + X″ therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy—Individualized identification of exercise tolerance and precise implementation of exercise intervention. Front Physiol 2022; 13:947749. [PMID: 35991169 PMCID: PMC9389311 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.947749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked recessive fatal muscular disease. Gene therapy, cell therapy, and drug therapy are currently the most widely used treatments for DMD. However, many experiments on animals and humans suggested that appropriate exercise could improve the effectiveness of such precision medicine treatment, thereby improving patient’s muscle quality and function. Due to the striated muscle damage of DMD individuals, there are still many debates about whether DMD animals or patients can exercise, how to exercise, when to exercise best, and how to exercise effectively. The purpose of this review is to summarize and investigate the scientific basis and efficacy of exercise as an adjuvant therapy for DMD gene therapy, cell therapy and drug therapy, as well as to present the theoretical framework and optional strategies of “exercise + X″″ combination therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhui Su
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Beijing Sport University, Beijing, China
- Institute of Physical Education, Jilin Normal University, Siping, China
| | - Yafeng Song
- China Institute of Sport and Health Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Yafeng Song,
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2
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The Neuromuscular Junction: Roles in Aging and Neuromuscular Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22158058. [PMID: 34360831 PMCID: PMC8347593 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a specialized synapse that bridges the motor neuron and the skeletal muscle fiber and is crucial for conversion of electrical impulses originating in the motor neuron to action potentials in the muscle fiber. The consideration of contributing factors to skeletal muscle injury, muscular dystrophy and sarcopenia cannot be restricted only to processes intrinsic to the muscle, as data show that these conditions incur denervation-like findings, such as fragmented NMJ morphology and corresponding functional changes in neuromuscular transmission. Primary defects in the NMJ also influence functional loss in motor neuron disease, congenital myasthenic syndromes and myasthenia gravis, resulting in skeletal muscle weakness and heightened fatigue. Such findings underscore the role that the NMJ plays in neuromuscular performance. Regardless of cause or effect, functional denervation is now an accepted consequence of sarcopenia and muscle disease. In this short review, we provide an overview of the pathologic etiology, symptoms, and therapeutic strategies related to the NMJ. In particular, we examine the role of the NMJ as a disease modifier and a potential therapeutic target in neuromuscular injury and disease.
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3
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Beneficial Role of Exercise in the Modulation of mdx Muscle Plastic Remodeling and Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10040558. [PMID: 33916762 PMCID: PMC8066278 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10040558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked recessive progressive lethal disorder caused by the lack of dystrophin, which determines myofibers mechanical instability, oxidative stress, inflammation, and susceptibility to contraction-induced injuries. Unfortunately, at present, there is no efficient therapy for DMD. Beyond several promising gene- and stem cells-based strategies under investigation, physical activity may represent a valid noninvasive therapeutic approach to slow down the progression of the pathology. However, ethical issues, the limited number of studies in humans and the lack of consistency of the investigated training interventions generate loss of consensus regarding their efficacy, leaving exercise prescription still questionable. By an accurate analysis of data about the effects of different protocol of exercise on muscles of mdx mice, the most widely-used pre-clinical model for DMD research, we found that low intensity exercise, especially in the form of low speed treadmill running, likely represents the most suitable exercise modality associated to beneficial effects on mdx muscle. This protocol of training reduces muscle oxidative stress, inflammation, and fibrosis process, and enhances muscle functionality, muscle regeneration, and hypertrophy. These conclusions can guide the design of appropriate studies on human, thereby providing new insights to translational therapeutic application of exercise to DMD patients.
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4
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Van Pelt DW, Kharaz YA, Sarver DC, Eckhardt LR, Dzierzawski JT, Disser NP, Piacentini AN, Comerford E, McDonagh B, Mendias CL. Multiomics analysis of the mdx/mTR mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Connect Tissue Res 2021; 62:24-39. [PMID: 32664808 DOI: 10.1080/03008207.2020.1791103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE/AIM Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive neuromuscular disease characterized by extensive muscle weakness. Patients with DMD lack a functional dystrophin protein, which transmits force and organizes the cytoskeleton of skeletal muscle. Multiomic studies have been proposed as a way to obtain novel insight about disease processes from preclinical models, and we used this approach to study pathological changes in dystrophic muscles. MATERIALS AND METHODS We evaluated hindlimb muscles of male mdx/mTR mice, which lack a functional dystrophin protein and have deficits in satellite cell abundance and proliferative capacity. Wild type (WT) C57BL/6 J mice served as controls. Muscle fiber contractility was measured, along with changes in the transcriptome using RNA sequencing, and in the proteome, metabolome, and lipidome using mass spectrometry. RESULTS While mdx/mTR mice displayed gross pathological changes and continued cycles of degeneration and regeneration, we found no differences in permeabilized fiber contractility between strains. However, there were numerous changes in the transcriptome and proteome related to protein balance, contractile elements, extracellular matrix, and metabolism. There was only a 53% agreement in fold-change data between the proteome and transcriptome. Numerous changes in markers of skeletal muscle metabolism were observed, with dystrophic muscles exhibiting elevated glycolytic metabolites such as 6-phosphoglycerate, fructose-6-phosphate and glucose-6-phosphate, fructose bisphosphate, phosphorylated hexoses, and phosphoenolpyruvate. CONCLUSIONS These findings highlight the utility of multiomics in studying muscle disease, and provide additional insight into the pathological changes in dystrophic muscles that might help to indirectly guide evidence-based nutritional or exercise prescription in DMD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas W Van Pelt
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Kentucky , Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Yalda A Kharaz
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool , Liverpool, UK
| | - Dylan C Sarver
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School , Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Logan R Eckhardt
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School , Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Justin T Dzierzawski
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School , Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Alex N Piacentini
- Research Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery , New York, NY, USA
| | - Eithne Comerford
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool , Liverpool, UK
| | - Brian McDonagh
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, National University of Ireland , Galway, Ireland
| | - Christopher L Mendias
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School , Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Research Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery , New York, NY, USA.,Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medical College , New York, NY, USA
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5
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McDonald CM, Ramirez-Sanchez I, Oskarsson B, Joyce N, Aguilar C, Nicorici A, Dayan J, Goude E, Abresch RT, Villarreal F, Ceballos G, Perkins G, Dugar S, Schreiner G, Henricson EK. (-)-Epicatechin induces mitochondrial biogenesis and markers of muscle regeneration in adults with Becker muscular dystrophy. Muscle Nerve 2020; 63:239-249. [PMID: 33125736 PMCID: PMC7898288 DOI: 10.1002/mus.27108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Introduction We conducted an open‐label study to examine the effects of the flavonoid (−)‐epicatechin in seven ambulatory adult patients with Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD). Methods Seven participants received (−)‐epicatechin 50 mg twice per day for 8 weeks. Pre‐ and postprocedures included biceps brachii biopsy to assess muscle structure and growth‐relevant endpoints by western blotting, mitochondria volume measurement, and cristae abundance by electron microscopy, graded exercise testing, and muscle strength and function tests. Results Western blotting showed significantly increased levels of enzymes modulating cellular bioenergetics (liver kinase B1 and 5′‐adenosine monophosphate–activated protein kinase). Peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor gamma coactivator‐1alpha, a transcriptional coactivator of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis and cristae‐associated mitofilin levels, increased as did cristae abundance. Muscle and plasma follistatin increased significantly while myostatin decreased. Markers of skeletal muscle regeneration myogenin, myogenic regulatory factor‐5, myoblast determination protein 1, myocyte enhancer factor‐2, and structure‐associated proteins, including dysferlin, utrophin, and intracellular creatine kinase, also increased. Exercise testing demonstrated decreased heart rate, maximal oxygen consumption per kilogram, and plasma lactate levels at defined workloads. Tissue saturation index improved in resting and postexercise states. Discussion (−)‐Epicatechin, an exercise mimetic, appears to have short‐term positive effects on tissue biomarkers indicative of mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle regeneration, and produced improvements in graded exercise testing parameters in patients with BMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig M McDonald
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Israel Ramirez-Sanchez
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California at San Diego, San Diego, California, USA.,Escuela Superior de Medicina, Seccion de Posgrado e Investigacion, del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Björn Oskarsson
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida, USA
| | - Nanette Joyce
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Candace Aguilar
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Alina Nicorici
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Jonathan Dayan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Erica Goude
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - R Ted Abresch
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Francisco Villarreal
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California at San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Guillermo Ceballos
- Escuela Superior de Medicina, Seccion de Posgrado e Investigacion, del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Guy Perkins
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California at San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Sundeep Dugar
- Epirium Bio, Inc (formerly Cardero Therapeutics, Inc), San Diego, California, USA
| | - George Schreiner
- Epirium Bio, Inc (formerly Cardero Therapeutics, Inc), San Diego, California, USA
| | - Erik K Henricson
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, California, USA
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6
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Ng SY, Ljubicic V. Recent insights into neuromuscular junction biology in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Impacts, challenges, and opportunities. EBioMedicine 2020; 61:103032. [PMID: 33039707 PMCID: PMC7648118 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.103032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most common and relentless form of muscular dystrophy. The pleiotropic effects of dystrophin deficiency include remarkable impacts on neuromuscular junction (NMJ) structure and function. Some of these alterations contribute to the severe muscle wasting and weakness that distinguish DMD, while others attempt to compensate for them. Experimental approaches that correct NMJ biology in pre-clinical models of DMD attenuate disease progression and improve functional outcomes, which suggests that targeting the NMJ may be an effective therapeutic strategy for DMD patients. The objectives of this review are to 1) survey the distinctions in NMJ structure, function, and gene expression in the dystrophic context as compared to the healthy condition, and 2) summarize the efforts, opportunities and challenges to correct NMJ biology in DMD. This information will expand our basic understanding of neuromuscular biology and may be useful for designing novel NMJ-targeted drug or behavioural strategies to mitigate the dystrophic pathology and other disorders of the neuromuscular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Y Ng
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton L8S 4L8, Ontario, Canada
| | - Vladimir Ljubicic
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton L8S 4L8, Ontario, Canada.
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7
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Muscular Dystrophy and Rehabilitation Interventions with Regenerative Treatment. CURRENT PHYSICAL MEDICINE AND REHABILITATION REPORTS 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40141-019-00255-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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8
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Kostek M. Precision Medicine and Exercise Therapy in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7030064. [PMID: 30875955 PMCID: PMC6473733 DOI: 10.3390/sports7030064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Precision medicine is being discussed and incorporated at all levels of health care and disease prevention, management, and treatment. Key components include new taxonomies of disease classification, the measurement and incorporation of genetics and "omics" data, biomarkers, and health care professionals who can optimize this information for a precision approach to treatment. The study and treatment of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is making rapid advances in these areas in addition to rapid advances in new gene and cell-based therapies. New therapies will increase the variability in disease severity, furthering a need for a precision-based approach. An area of therapy that is rarely considered in this approach is how the physiology of muscle contractions will interact with these therapies and a precision approach. As muscle pathology improves, physical activity levels will increase, which will likely be very beneficial to some patients but likely not to all. Physical activity is likely to synergistically improve these therapies and can be used to enhance muscle health and quality of life after these therapies are delivered using the tools of precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Kostek
- Laboratory of Muscle and Translational Therapeutics, Department of Physical Therapy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA 15228, USA.
- McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15228, USA.
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9
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Delacroix C, Hyzewicz J, Lemaitre M, Friguet B, Li Z, Klein A, Furling D, Agbulut O, Ferry A. Improvement of Dystrophic Muscle Fragility by Short-Term Voluntary Exercise through Activation of Calcineurin Pathway in mdx Mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2018; 188:2662-2673. [PMID: 30142334 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2018.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 06/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Dystrophin deficiency in mdx mice, a model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy, leads to muscle weakness revealed by a reduced specific maximal force as well as fragility (ie, higher susceptibility to contraction-induced injury, as shown by a greater force decrease after lengthening contractions). Both symptoms could be improved with dystrophin restoration-based therapies and long-term (months) voluntary exercise. Herein, we evaluated the effect of short-term (1-week) voluntary wheel running. We found that running improved fragility of tibialis anterior muscle (TA), but not plantaris muscle, independently of utrophin up-regulation, without affecting weakness. Moreover, TA muscle excitability was also preserved by running, as shown by compound muscle action potential measurements after lengthening contractions. Of interest, the calcineurin inhibitor cyclosporin A prevented the effect of running on both muscle fragility and excitability. Cyclosporin also prevented the running-induced changes in expression of genes involved in excitability (Scn4a and Cacna1s) and slower contractile phenotype (Myh2 and Tnni1) in TA muscle. In conclusion, short-term voluntary exercise improves TA muscle fragility in mdx mice, without worsening weakness. Its effect was related to preserved excitability, calcineurin pathway activation, and changes in the program of genes involved in excitability and slower contractile phenotype. Thus, remediation of muscle fragility of Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients through appropriate exercise training deserves to be explored in more detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clement Delacroix
- Research Center in Myology, Association Institute of Myology, Sorbonne University, INSERM, UMRS974, Paris, France
| | - Janek Hyzewicz
- Biological Adaptation and Aging, Institute of Biology Paris-Seine, UMR CNRS 8256, INSERM ERL U1164, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Megane Lemaitre
- Research Center in Myology, Association Institute of Myology, Sorbonne University, INSERM, UMRS974, Paris, France
| | - Bertrand Friguet
- Biological Adaptation and Aging, Institute of Biology Paris-Seine, UMR CNRS 8256, INSERM ERL U1164, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Zhenlin Li
- Biological Adaptation and Aging, Institute of Biology Paris-Seine, UMR CNRS 8256, INSERM ERL U1164, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Arnaud Klein
- Research Center in Myology, Association Institute of Myology, Sorbonne University, INSERM, UMRS974, Paris, France
| | - Denis Furling
- Research Center in Myology, Association Institute of Myology, Sorbonne University, INSERM, UMRS974, Paris, France
| | - Onnik Agbulut
- Biological Adaptation and Aging, Institute of Biology Paris-Seine, UMR CNRS 8256, INSERM ERL U1164, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Arnaud Ferry
- Research Center in Myology, Association Institute of Myology, Sorbonne University, INSERM, UMRS974, Paris, France; Paris Descartes University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.
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10
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Heydemann A. Skeletal Muscle Metabolism in Duchenne and Becker Muscular Dystrophy-Implications for Therapies. Nutrients 2018; 10:nu10060796. [PMID: 29925809 PMCID: PMC6024668 DOI: 10.3390/nu10060796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The interactions between nutrition and metabolism and skeletal muscle have long been known. Muscle is the major metabolic organ—it consumes more calories than other organs—and therefore, there is a clear need to discuss these interactions and provide some direction for future research areas regarding muscle pathologies. In addition, new experiments and manuscripts continually reveal additional highly intricate, reciprocal interactions between metabolism and muscle. These reciprocal interactions include exercise, age, sex, diet, and pathologies including atrophy, hypoxia, obesity, diabetes, and muscle myopathies. Central to this review are the metabolic changes that occur in the skeletal muscle cells of muscular dystrophy patients and mouse models. Many of these metabolic changes are pathogenic (inappropriate body mass changes, mitochondrial dysfunction, reduced adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels, and increased Ca2+) and others are compensatory (increased phosphorylated AMP activated protein kinase (pAMPK), increased slow fiber numbers, and increased utrophin). Therefore, reversing or enhancing these changes with therapies will aid the patients. The multiple therapeutic targets to reverse or enhance the metabolic pathways will be discussed. Among the therapeutic targets are increasing pAMPK, utrophin, mitochondrial number and slow fiber characteristics, and inhibiting reactive oxygen species. Because new data reveals many additional intricate levels of interactions, new questions are rapidly arising. How does muscular dystrophy alter metabolism, and are the changes compensatory or pathogenic? How does metabolism affect muscular dystrophy? Of course, the most profound question is whether clinicians can therapeutically target nutrition and metabolism for muscular dystrophy patient benefit? Obtaining the answers to these questions will greatly aid patients with muscular dystrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahlke Heydemann
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
- Center for Cardiovascular Research, The University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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11
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Dial AG, Ng SY, Manta A, Ljubicic V. The Role of AMPK in Neuromuscular Biology and Disease. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2018; 29:300-312. [PMID: 29572064 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2018.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a primary regulator of cellular metabolism. Recent studies have revealed that AMPK also mediates the maintenance and plasticity of α-motoneurons, the neuromuscular junction, and skeletal muscle. Furthermore, AMPK stimulation by either genetic, pharmacological, or physiological approaches elicits beneficial phenotypic remodeling in neuromuscular disorders (NMDs). Here, we review the role of AMPK as a governor of neuromuscular biology, and present evidence for AMPK as an effective molecular target for therapeutic pursuit in the context of the most prevalent NMDs, including Duchenne muscular dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy, and myotonic dystrophy type 1. This information may be useful for engineering AMPK-targeted pharmacological- or lifestyle-based strategies to treat disorders of the neuromuscular system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athan G Dial
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Sean Y Ng
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Alexander Manta
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Vladimir Ljubicic
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
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12
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Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a lethal genetic disease of muscle wasting for which there is no cure. In healthy muscle, structure and function improve dramatically with exercise. In patients with dystrophy, little is known about the effects of exercise. As contemporary therapies rapidly progress and patients become more active, there is a need to understand the effects of exercise.
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13
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Morici G, Frinchi M, Pitruzzella A, Di Liberto V, Barone R, Pace A, Di Felice V, Belluardo N, Cappello F, Mudò G, Bonsignore MR. Mild Aerobic Exercise Training Hardly Affects the Diaphragm of mdx Mice. J Cell Physiol 2017; 232:2044-2052. [PMID: 27576008 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In the mdx mice model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD), mild endurance exercise training positively affected limb skeletal muscles, whereas few and controversial data exist on the effects of training on the diaphragm. The diaphragm was examined in mdx (C57BL/10ScSn-Dmdmdx) and wild-type (WT, C57BL/10ScSc) mice under sedentary conditions (mdx-SD, WT-SD) and during mild exercise training (mdx-EX, WT-EX). At baseline, and after 30 and 45 days (training: 5 d/wk for 6 weeks), diaphragm muscle morphology and Cx39 protein were assessed. In addition, tissue levels of the chaperonins Hsp60 and Hsp70 and the p65 subunit of nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB) were measured in diaphragm, gastrocnemius, and quadriceps in each experimental group at all time points. Although morphological analysis showed unchanged total area of necrosis/regeneration in the diaphragm after training, there was a trend for larger areas of regeneration than necrosis in the diaphragm of mdx-EX compared to mdx-SD mice. However, the levels of Cx39, a protein associated with active regeneration in damaged muscle, were similar in the diaphragm of mdx-EX and mdx-SD mice. Hsp60 significantly decreased at 45 days in the diaphragm, but not in limb muscles, in both trained and sedentary mdx compared to WT mice. In limb muscles, but not in the diaphragm, Hsp70 and NF-kB p65 levels were increased in mdx mice irrespective of training at 30 and 45 days. Therefore, the diaphragm of mdx mice showed little inflammatory and stress responses over time, and appeared hardly affected by mild endurance training. J. Cell. Physiol. 232: 2044-2052, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Morici
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.,Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare (IBIM), Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche (CNR), Palermo, Italy
| | - Monica Frinchi
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Alessandro Pitruzzella
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.,Istituto Euro-Mediterraneo di Scienza e Tecnologia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Valentina Di Liberto
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Rosario Barone
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.,Istituto Euro-Mediterraneo di Scienza e Tecnologia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Andrea Pace
- Istituto Euro-Mediterraneo di Scienza e Tecnologia, Palermo, Italy.,Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Molecolari e Biomolecolari (STEMBIO)-University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Valentina Di Felice
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.,Istituto Euro-Mediterraneo di Scienza e Tecnologia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Natale Belluardo
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Francesco Cappello
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.,Istituto Euro-Mediterraneo di Scienza e Tecnologia, Palermo, Italy
| | - Giuseppa Mudò
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina Sperimentale e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Maria R Bonsignore
- Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare (IBIM), Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche (CNR), Palermo, Italy.,Dipartimento Biomedico di Medicina Interna e Specialistica (DiBiMIS), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
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14
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Morici G, Rappa F, Cappello F, Pace E, Pace A, Mudò G, Crescimanno G, Belluardo N, Bonsignore MR. Lack of Dystrophin Affects Bronchial Epithelium inmdxMice. J Cell Physiol 2016; 231:2218-23. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.25339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Morici
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC); University of Palermo; Palermo Sicilia Italy
- Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare (IBIM); Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR); Palermo Sicilia Italy
| | - Francesca Rappa
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC); University of Palermo; Palermo Sicilia Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche della Società e dello Sport; University of Palermo; Palermo Sicilia Italy
- Istituto Euro-Mediterraneo di Scienza e Tecnologia; Palermo Sicilia Italy
| | - Francesco Cappello
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC); University of Palermo; Palermo Sicilia Italy
- Istituto Euro-Mediterraneo di Scienza e Tecnologia; Palermo Sicilia Italy
| | - Elisabetta Pace
- Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare (IBIM); Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR); Palermo Sicilia Italy
| | - Andrea Pace
- Istituto Euro-Mediterraneo di Scienza e Tecnologia; Palermo Sicilia Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF); University of Palermo; Palermo Sicilia Italy
| | - Giuseppa Mudò
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC); University of Palermo; Palermo Sicilia Italy
| | - Grazia Crescimanno
- Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare (IBIM); Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR); Palermo Sicilia Italy
| | - Natale Belluardo
- Dipartimento di Biomedicina e Neuroscienze Cliniche (BioNeC); University of Palermo; Palermo Sicilia Italy
| | - Maria R. Bonsignore
- Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare (IBIM); Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR); Palermo Sicilia Italy
- Dipartimento Biomedico di Medicina Interna e Specialistica (DiBiMIS); University of Palermo; Palermo Sicilia Italy
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15
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Morton TL, Galior K, McGrath C, Wu X, Uzer G, Uzer GB, Sen B, Xie Z, Tyson D, Rubin J, Styner M. Exercise Increases and Browns Muscle Lipid in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2016; 7:80. [PMID: 27445983 PMCID: PMC4928595 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2016.00080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle lipid increases with high-fat feeding and diabetes. In trained athletes, increased muscle lipid is not associated with insulin resistance, a phenomenon known as the athlete's paradox. To understand if exercise altered the phenotype of muscle lipid, female C57BL/6 mice fed CTL or high-fat diet (HFD for 6 or 18 weeks) were further divided into sedentary or exercising groups (CTL-E or HFD-E) with voluntary access to running wheels for the last 6 weeks of experiments, running 6 h/night. Diet did not affect running time or distance. HFD mice weighed more than CTL after 18 weeks (p < 0.01). Quadriceps muscle TG was increased in running animals and in sedentary mice fed HFD for 18 weeks (p < 0.05). In exercised animals, markers of fat, Plin1, aP2, FSP27, and Fasn, were increased significantly in HFD groups. Ucp1 and Pgc1a, markers for brown fat, increased with exercise in the setting of high fat feeding. Fndc5, which encodes irisin, and CytC were sensitive to exercise regardless of diet. Plin5 was increased with HFD and unaffected by exercise; the respiratory exchange ratio was 15% lower in the 18-week HFD group compared with CTL (p < 0.001) and 10% lower in 18 weeks HFD-E compared with CTL-E (p < 0.001). Increased Ucp1 and Pgc1a in exercised muscle of running mice suggests that a beige/brown fat phenotype develops, which differs from the fat phenotype that induces insulin resistance in high fat feeding. This suggests that increased muscle lipid may develop a "brown" phenotype in the setting of endurance exercise training, a shift that is further promoted by HFD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany L. Morton
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Kornelia Galior
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Cody McGrath
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Xin Wu
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Gunes Uzer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Guniz Bas Uzer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Buer Sen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Zhihui Xie
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - David Tyson
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Janet Rubin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Maya Styner
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- *Correspondence: Maya Styner,
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16
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Hyzewicz J, Ruegg UT, Takeda S. Comparison of Experimental Protocols of Physical Exercise for mdx Mice and Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Patients. J Neuromuscul Dis 2015; 2:325-342. [PMID: 27858750 PMCID: PMC5240598 DOI: 10.3233/jnd-150106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is caused by mutations in the gene coding for dystrophin and leads to muscle degeneration, wheelchair dependence and death by cardiac or respiratory failure. Physical exercise has been proposed as a palliative therapy for DMD to maintain muscle strength and prevent contractures for as long as possible. However, its practice remains controversial because the benefits of training may be counteracted by muscle overuse and damage. The effects of physical exercise have been investigated in muscles of dystrophin-deficient mdx mice and in patients with DMD. However, a lack of uniformity among protocols limits comparability between studies and translatability of results from animals to humans. In the present review, we summarize and discuss published protocols used to investigate the effects of physical exercise on mdx mice and DMD patients, with the objectives of improving comparability between studies and identifying future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janek Hyzewicz
- Department of Molecular Therapy, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Shin'ichi Takeda
- Department of Molecular Therapy, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
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17
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Macadangdang J, Guan X, Smith AS, Lucero R, Czerniecki S, Childers MK, Mack DL, Kim DH. Nanopatterned Human iPSC-based Model of a Dystrophin-Null Cardiomyopathic Phenotype. Cell Mol Bioeng 2015; 8:320-332. [PMID: 26366230 PMCID: PMC4564135 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-015-0413-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Human induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) offer unprecedented opportunities to study inherited heart conditions in vitro, but are phenotypically immature, limiting their ability to effectively model adult-onset diseases. Cardiomyopathy is becoming the leading cause of death in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), but the pathogenesis of this disease phenotype is not fully understood. Therefore, we aimed to test whether biomimetic nanotopography could further stratify the disease phenotype of DMD hiPSC-CMs to create more translationally relevant cardiomyocytes for disease modeling applications. We found that anisotropic nanotopography was necessary to distinguish structural differences between normal and DMD hiPSC-CMs, as these differences were masked on conventional flat substrates. DMD hiPSC-CMs exhibited a diminished structural and functional response to the underlying nanotopography compared to normal cardiomyocytes at both the macroscopic and subcellular levels. This blunted response may be due to a lower level of actin cytoskeleton turnover as measured by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. Taken together these data suggest that DMD hiPSC-CMs are less adaptable to changes in their extracellular environment, and highlight the utility of nanotopographic substrates for effectively stratifying normal and structural cardiac disease phenotypes in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Macadangdang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Xuan Guan
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Alec S.T. Smith
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Rachel Lucero
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Stefan Czerniecki
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Martin K. Childers
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - David L. Mack
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Deok-Ho Kim
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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18
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Henríquez-Olguín C, Altamirano F, Valladares D, López JR, Allen PD, Jaimovich E. Altered ROS production, NF-κB activation and interleukin-6 gene expression induced by electrical stimulation in dystrophic mdx skeletal muscle cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1852:1410-9. [PMID: 25857619 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a fatal X-linked genetic disease, caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene, which cause functional loss of this protein. This pathology is associated with an increased production of reactive oxygen (ROS) and nitrogen species. The aim of this work was to study the alterations in NF-κB activation and interleukin-6 (IL-6) expression induced by membrane depolarization in dystrophic mdx myotubes. Membrane depolarization elicited by electrical stimulation increased p65 phosphorylation, NF-κB transcriptional activity and NF-κB-dependent IL-6 expression in wt myotubes, whereas in mdx myotubes it had the opposite effect. We have previously shown that depolarization-induced intracellular Ca2+ increases and ROS production are necessary for NF-κB activation and stimulation of gene expression in wt myotubes. Dystrophic myotubes showed a reduced amplitude and area under the curve of the Ca2+ transient elicited by electrical stimulation. On the other hand, electrical stimuli induced higher ROS production in mdx than wt myotubes, which were blocked by NOX2 inhibitors. Moreover, mRNA expression and protein levels of the NADPH oxidase subunits: p47phox and gp91phox were increased in mdx myotubes. Looking at ROS-dependence of NF-κB activation we found that in wt myotubes external administration of 50 μM H2O2 increased NF-κB activity; after administration of 100 and 200 μM H2O2 there was no effect. In mdx myotubes there was a dose-dependent reduction in NF-κB activity in response to external administration of H2O2, with a significant effect of 100 μM and 200 μM, suggesting that ROS levels are critical for NF-κB activity. Prior blockage with NOX2 inhibitors blunted the effects of electrical stimuli in both NF-κB activation and IL-6 expression. Finally, to ascertain whether stimulation of NF-κB and IL-6 gene expression by the inflammatory pathway is also impaired in mdx myotubes, we studied the effect of lipopolysaccharide on both NF-κB activation and IL-6 expression. Exposure to lipopolysaccharide induced a dramatic increase in both NF-κB activation and IL-6 expression in both wt and mdx myotubes, suggesting that the altered IL-6 gene expression after electrical stimulation in mdx muscle cells is due to dysregulation of Ca2+ release and ROS production, both of which impinge on NF-κB signaling. IL-6 is a key metabolic modulator that is released by the skeletal muscle to coordinate a multi-systemic response (liver, muscle, and adipocytes) during physical exercise; the alteration of this response in dystrophic muscles may contribute to an abnormal response to contraction and exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Henríquez-Olguín
- Centro de Estudios Moleculares de la Célula, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8389100, Chile; Laboratorio Ciencias del Ejercicio, Clínica MEDS, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisco Altamirano
- Centro de Estudios Moleculares de la Célula, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8389100, Chile; Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Denisse Valladares
- Centro de Estudios Moleculares de la Célula, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8389100, Chile
| | - José R López
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Paul D Allen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Enrique Jaimovich
- Centro de Estudios Moleculares de la Célula, ICBM, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8389100, Chile.
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19
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Sharma P, Basu S, Mitchell RW, Stelmack GL, Anderson JE, Halayko AJ. Role of dystrophin in airway smooth muscle phenotype, contraction and lung function. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102737. [PMID: 25054970 PMCID: PMC4108318 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystrophin links the transmembrane dystrophin-glycoprotein complex to the actin cytoskeleton. We have shown that dystrophin-glycoprotein complex subunits are markers for airway smooth muscle phenotype maturation and together with caveolin-1, play an important role in calcium homeostasis. We tested if dystrophin affects phenotype maturation, tracheal contraction and lung physiology. We used dystrophin deficient Golden Retriever dogs (GRMD) and mdx mice vs healthy control animals in our approach. We found significant reduction of contractile protein markers: smooth muscle myosin heavy chain (smMHC) and calponin and reduced Ca2+ response to contractile agonist in dystrophin deficient cells. Immunocytochemistry revealed reduced stress fibers and number of smMHC positive cells in dystrophin-deficient cells, when compared to control. Immunoblot analysis of Akt1, GSK3β and mTOR phosphorylation further revealed that downstream PI3K signaling, which is essential for phenotype maturation, was suppressed in dystrophin deficient cell cultures. Tracheal rings from mdx mice showed significant reduction in the isometric contraction to methacholine (MCh) when compared to genetic control BL10ScSnJ mice (wild-type). In vivo lung function studies using a small animal ventilator revealed a significant reduction in peak airway resistance induced by maximum concentrations of inhaled MCh in mdx mice, while there was no change in other lung function parameters. These data show that the lack of dystrophin is associated with a concomitant suppression of ASM cell phenotype maturation in vitro, ASM contraction ex vivo and lung function in vivo, indicating that a linkage between the DGC and the actin cytoskeleton via dystrophin is a determinant of the phenotype and functional properties of ASM.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blotting, Western
- Cells, Cultured
- Dogs
- Dystrophin/deficiency
- Dystrophin/genetics
- Dystrophin/physiology
- Immunohistochemistry
- Lung/metabolism
- Lung/physiology
- Methacholine Chloride/pharmacology
- Mice, Inbred mdx
- Mice, Knockout
- Microscopy, Electron, Transmission
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Muscle Contraction/genetics
- Muscle Contraction/physiology
- Muscle, Smooth/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth/metabolism
- Muscle, Smooth/physiology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/cytology
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/metabolism
- Myocytes, Smooth Muscle/physiology
- Myosin Heavy Chains/metabolism
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/metabolism
- Respiratory System/cytology
- Respiratory System/metabolism
- Respiratory System/ultrastructure
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/physiology
- Trachea/drug effects
- Trachea/metabolism
- Trachea/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawan Sharma
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- CIHR National Training Program in Allergy and Asthma, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Biology of Breathing Group, Manitoba Institute of Child Health, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Sujata Basu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Biology of Breathing Group, Manitoba Institute of Child Health, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Richard W. Mitchell
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Biology of Breathing Group, Manitoba Institute of Child Health, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Gerald L. Stelmack
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Biology of Breathing Group, Manitoba Institute of Child Health, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Judy E. Anderson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Andrew J. Halayko
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Section of Respiratory Disease, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- CIHR National Training Program in Allergy and Asthma, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- Biology of Breathing Group, Manitoba Institute of Child Health, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
- * E-mail:
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