Nitric oxide synthase and changes in oxidative stress levels in embryonic kidney observed in a rabbit model of intrauterine growth restriction

Pregnancy Complications and Feto-Maternal Monitoring in Rabbits

Rabbit production holds significant relevance in modern agriculture due to its potential as a sustainable source of high-quality protein and efficient feed conversion, contributing to food security and economic diversification. Nevertheless, studies incorporating feto-maternal monitoring in this species are uncommon. This review gathers research on the monitoring and evaluation of factors affecting rabbit gestation, providing a better understanding of the causes of prenatal development abnormalities. These include studies regarding how chronic maternal hypertension, gestational diabetes, maternal stress, ectopic gestation, maternal uterine ischemia and fetal hypoxia, intrauterine growth restriction, superfetation, maternal age, maternal nutritional status, maternal physical condition, maternal and embryonic genotype, and the intrauterine location of rabbit fetuses can potentially impact rabbits' reproduction and maternal and fetal health. Among other monitoring techniques, ultrasonography, considered one of the best tools for diagnosing pregnancy and conducting follow-up, is also reviewed. Details on measurable fetal-development parameters in rabbits and precautions to be considered before and during the examination are also provided. Additional studies are required to understand why some events occur and their consequences throughout gestation, allowing the determination of new biomarkers or cut-offs that can be helpful for early diagnosis and improve reproductive efficiency.

Fetal Growth Restriction and Subsequent Low Grade Fetal Inflammatory Response Are Associated with Early-Onset Neonatal Sepsis in the Context of Early Preterm Sterile Intrauterine Environment

There is no information about whether fetal growth restriction (FGR) is an independent risk factor for low-grade fetal inflammatory response (FIR), and which is more valuable for the prediction of early-onset neonatal sepsis (EONS) between low-grade FIR or fetal inflammatory response syndrome (FIRS) in the context of human early preterm sterile intrauterine environment. We examined FIR (umbilical cord plasma (UCP) CRP concentration at birth) according to the presence or absence of FGR (birth weight < 5th percentile for gestational age (GA)) and EONS in 81 singleton preterm births (GA at delivery: 24.5~33.5 weeks) within 72 h after amniocentesis and with sterile intrauterine environment. A sterile intrauterine environment was defined by the presence of both a sterile amniotic fluid (AF) (AF with both negative culture and MMP-8 < 23 ng/mL) and inflammation-free placenta. Median UCP CRP (ng/mL) was higher in cases with FGR than in those without FGR (63.2 vs. 34.5; p = 0.018), and FGR was an independent risk factor for low-grade FIR (UCP CRP ≥ 52.8 ng/mL) (OR 3.003, 95% CI 1.024-8.812, p = 0.045) after correction for confounders. Notably, low-grade FIR (positive likelihood-ratio (LR) and 95% CI, 2.3969 (1.4141-4.0625); negative-LR and 95% CI, 0.4802 (0.2591-0.8902)), but not FIRS (positive-LR and 95% CI, 2.1071 (0.7526-5.8993); negative-LR and 95% CI, 0.8510 (0.6497-1.1145)), was useful for the identification of EONS. In conclusion, FGR is an independent risk factor for low-grade FIR, and low-grade FIR, but not FIRS, has a value for the identification of EONS in the context of the early preterm sterile intrauterine environment.

Models of Intrauterine growth restriction and fetal programming in rabbits

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) affects approximately 10% of human pregnancies globally and has immediate and life-long consequences for offspring health. However, the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of IUGR and its association with later health and disease outcomes are poorly understood. To address these knowledge gaps, the use of experimental animals is critically important. Since the 50's different environmental, pharmacological, and surgical manipulations have been performed in the rabbit to improve our knowledge of the control of fetal growth, fetal responses to IUGR, and mechanisms by which offspring may be programmed by an adverse gestational environment. The purpose of this review is therefore to summarize the utility of the rabbit as a model for IUGR research. It first summarizes the knowledge of prenatal and postnatal development in the rabbit and how these events relate to developmental milestones in humans. It then describes the methods used to induce IUGR in rabbits and the knowledge gained about the mechanisms determining prenatal and postnatal outcomes of the offspring. Finally, it discusses the application of state of the art approaches in the rabbit, including high-resolution ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, and gene targeting, to gain a deeper integrative understanding of the physiological and molecular events governing the development of IUGR. Overall, we hope to engage and inspire investigators to employ the rabbit as a model organism when studying pregnancy physiology so that we may advance our understanding of mechanisms underlying IUGR and its consequences in humans and other mammalian species.

Maternal undernutrition aggravates renal tubular necrosis and interstitial fibrosis after unilateral ureteral obstruction in male rat offspring

Maternal undernutrition is known to reduce glomerular number but it may also affect tubulointerstitium, capillary density, and response to oxidative stress. To investigate whether the latter elements are affected, we examined the response to unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO), an established model of renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis, in the kidney of offspring from control and nutrient restricted rats. Six-week old male offspring from rats given food ad libitum (CON) and those subjected to 50% food restriction throughout pregnancy (NR) were subjected to UUO for 7 days. Body weight was significantly lower in NR. Systolic blood pressure and blood urea nitrogen increased similarly in CON and NR after UUO. Tubular necrosis in the obstructed kidney, on the other hand, was more extensive in NR. Also, the collagen area, a marker of fibrosis, of the obstructed kidney was significantly increased compared with the contralateral kidney only in NR. Capillary density was decreased similarly in the obstructed kidney of CON and NR compared with the contralateral kidney. Urine nitrate/nitrite, a marker of nitric oxide production, from the obstructed kidney was significantly increased in NR compared with CON. Nitrotyrosine, a marker of nitric oxide-mediated free radical injury, was increased in the obstructed kidney compared with the contralateral kidney in both CON and NR, but the extent was significantly greater in NR.

In conclusion, more severe tubular necrosis and fibrosis after UUO was observed in NR, which was thought to be due to increased nitrosative stress.

Competition for Materno-Fetal Resource Partitioning in a Rabbit Model of Undernourished Pregnancy

The major goal of animal production is to obtain abundant and healthy meat for consumers. Maternal food restriction (MFR) is often applied in farms to reduce production costs. However, the suitability of MFR in livestock animals is questionable, as this management may compromise maternal fitness due to a severe negative energetic balance and can induce Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) and prenatal programming in the offspring. Here, we sought to determine, using pregnant rabbits, the consequences of MFR on maternal endocrine and metabolic status and conceptus development. Pregnant dams were distributed into three groups: CONTROL (ad libitum feeding throughout the entire pregnancy; mean pregnancy length being around 31 days), UNDERFED (50% MFR during the entire pregnancy) and EARLY-UNDERFED (50% MFR only during the preimplantation period, Days 0–7). Maternal leptin concentrations and glycemic and lipid profiles were determined throughout pregnancy, whilst conceptus development was assessed ex-vivo at Day 28. Placental parameters were determined by macroscopic and histological evaluations and apoptotic assessments (TUNEL and Caspase-3). The main results of the study showed that, despite MFR altered maternal plasma lipid concentration (P<0.05), there were no effects on maternal bodyweight, plasma leptin concentration or glycemic profile. Fetal crown-rump lengths were reduced in both undernourished groups (P<0.001), but a significant reduction in fetal weight was only observed in the UNDERFED group (P<0.001). Growth in both undernourished groups was asymmetrical, with reduced liver weight (P<0.001) and significantly increased brain: fetal weight-ratio (P<0.001) and brain: liver weight-ratio (P<0.001) when compared to the CONTROL group. A significant reduction in placental weight was only observed in the UNDERFED group (P<0.001), despite both undernourished groups showing higher apoptotic rates at decidua and labyrinth zone (P<0.05) than the CONTROL group. Thus, these groups evidenced signs of placental degeneration, necrosis and stromal collapse. In summary, MFR may encourage the mother to make strategic decisions to safeguard her metabolic status and fitness at the expense of growth reduction in the litter, resulting in enhanced apoptotic and pathological processes at placental level and IUGR.