1
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Chowdhary S, Pelzer T, Saathoff M, Quaas E, Pendl J, Fulde M, Koksch B. Fine‐tuning the antimicrobial activity of β‐hairpin peptides with fluorinated amino acids. Pept Sci (Hoboken) 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/pep2.24306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Suvrat Chowdhary
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Tim Pelzer
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Mareike Saathoff
- Institute of Microbiology and Epizootics, Centre of Infection Medicine Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Elisa Quaas
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Core Facility SupraFAB Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Johanna Pendl
- Institute of Veterinary Anatomy Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Marcus Fulde
- Institute of Microbiology and Epizootics, Centre of Infection Medicine Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
- Veterinary Centre for Resistance Research (TZR) Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Beate Koksch
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
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2
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Teng P, Shao H, Huang B, Xie J, Cui S, Wang K, Cai J. Small Molecular Mimetics of Antimicrobial Peptides as a Promising Therapy To Combat Bacterial Resistance. J Med Chem 2023; 66:2211-2234. [PMID: 36739538 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Clinically, antibiotics are widely used to treat infectious diseases; however, excessive drug abuse and overuse exacerbate the prevalence of drug-resistant bacterial pathogens, making the development of novel antibiotics extremely difficult. Antimicrobial peptide (AMP) is one of the most promising candidates for overcoming bacterial resistance owing to its unique structure and mechanism of action. This study examines the development of small molecular mimetics of AMPs over the past two decades. These mimetics can selectively disrupt membranes, which are the characteristic antibacterial mechanism of AMPs. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of small AMP mimetics are discussed. The small molecular mimetics of AMPs are anticipated to garner interest and investment in discovering new antibiotics. This Perspective will assist in revitalizing the golden age of antibiotics in the current era of combating bacterial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Teng
- Institute of Drug Discovery and Design, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
| | - Haodong Shao
- Institute of Drug Discovery and Design, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
| | - Bo Huang
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
| | - Junqiu Xie
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, West Donggang Road 199, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Sunliang Cui
- Institute of Drug Discovery and Design, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P. R. China
| | - Kairong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, West Donggang Road 199, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Jianfeng Cai
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33620, United States
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3
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Doolan JA, Williams GT, Hilton KLF, Chaudhari R, Fossey JS, Goult BT, Hiscock JR. Advancements in antimicrobial nanoscale materials and self-assembling systems. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:8696-8755. [PMID: 36190355 PMCID: PMC9575517 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00915j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is directly responsible for more deaths per year than either HIV/AIDS or malaria and is predicted to incur a cumulative societal financial burden of at least $100 trillion between 2014 and 2050. Already heralded as one of the greatest threats to human health, the onset of the coronavirus pandemic has accelerated the prevalence of antimicrobial resistant bacterial infections due to factors including increased global antibiotic/antimicrobial use. Thus an urgent need for novel therapeutics to combat what some have termed the 'silent pandemic' is evident. This review acts as a repository of research and an overview of the novel therapeutic strategies being developed to overcome antimicrobial resistance, with a focus on self-assembling systems and nanoscale materials. The fundamental mechanisms of action, as well as the key advantages and disadvantages of each system are discussed, and attention is drawn to key examples within each field. As a result, this review provides a guide to the further design and development of antimicrobial systems, and outlines the interdisciplinary techniques required to translate this fundamental research towards the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack A Doolan
- School of Chemistry and Forensic Science, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NH, UK.
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK.
| | - George T Williams
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Kira L F Hilton
- School of Chemistry and Forensic Science, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NH, UK.
| | - Rajas Chaudhari
- School of Chemistry and Forensic Science, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NH, UK.
| | - John S Fossey
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Benjamin T Goult
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NJ, UK.
| | - Jennifer R Hiscock
- School of Chemistry and Forensic Science, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NH, UK.
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4
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Boles JE, Bennett C, Baker J, Hilton KLF, Kotak HA, Clark ER, Long Y, White LJ, Lai HY, Hind CK, Sutton JM, Garrett MD, Cheasty A, Ortega-Roldan JL, Charles M, Haynes CJE, Hiscock JR. Establishing the selective phospholipid membrane coordination, permeation and lysis properties for a series of 'druggable' supramolecular self-associating antimicrobial amphiphiles. Chem Sci 2022; 13:9761-9773. [PMID: 36091903 PMCID: PMC9400670 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc02630a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The rise of antimicrobial resistance remains one of the greatest global health threats facing humanity. Furthermore, the development of novel antibiotics has all but ground to a halt due to a collision of intersectional pressures. Herein we determine the antimicrobial efficacy for 14 structurally related supramolecular self-associating amphiphiles against clinically relevant Gram-positive methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative Escherichia coli. We establish the ability of these agents to selectively target phospholipid membranes of differing compositions, through a combination of computational host:guest complex formation simulations, synthetic vesicle lysis, adhesion and membrane fluidity experiments, alongside our novel 1H NMR CPMG nanodisc coordination assays, to verify a potential mode of action for this class of compounds and enable the production of evermore effective next-generation antimicrobial agents. Finally, we select a 7-compound subset, showing two lead compounds to exhibit 'druggable' profiles through completion of a variety of in vivo and in vitro DMPK studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E. Boles
- School of Chemistry and Forensics, University of KentCanterburyCT2 7NHUK,School of Biosciences, University of KentCanterburyCT2 7NJUK
| | | | | | - Kira L. F. Hilton
- School of Chemistry and Forensics, University of KentCanterburyCT2 7NHUK
| | - Hiral A. Kotak
- Chemistry Department, UCL20 Gordon StreetLondon WC1H 0AJUK
| | - Ewan R. Clark
- School of Chemistry and Forensics, University of KentCanterburyCT2 7NHUK
| | - Yifan Long
- Chemistry Department, UCL20 Gordon StreetLondon WC1H 0AJUK
| | - Lisa J. White
- School of Chemistry and Forensics, University of KentCanterburyCT2 7NHUK
| | - Hin Yuk Lai
- Chemistry Department, UCL20 Gordon StreetLondon WC1H 0AJUK
| | - Charlotte K. Hind
- Research and EvaluationPorton Down, UKHSA, Porton DownSalisbury SP4 0JGUK
| | - J. Mark Sutton
- Research and EvaluationPorton Down, UKHSA, Porton DownSalisbury SP4 0JGUK
| | | | - Anne Cheasty
- Cancer Research Horizons2 Redman PlaceLondonE20 1JQUK,ExscientiaThe Schrödinger Building, Heatley Road, Oxford Science ParkOxfordOX4 4GEUK
| | | | - Mark Charles
- Cancer Research Horizons2 Redman PlaceLondonE20 1JQUK
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5
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Chowdhary S, Schmidt RF, Sahoo AK, Tom Dieck T, Hohmann T, Schade B, Brademann-Jock K, Thünemann AF, Netz RR, Gradzielski M, Koksch B. Rational design of amphiphilic fluorinated peptides: evaluation of self-assembly properties and hydrogel formation. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:10176-10189. [PMID: 35796261 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr01648f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Advanced peptide-based nanomaterials composed of self-assembling peptides (SAPs) are of emerging interest in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. The introduction of fluorine into peptides, in fact, offers unique opportunities to tune their biophysical properties and intermolecular interactions. In particular, the degree of fluorination plays a crucial role in peptide engineering as it can be used to control the characteristics of fluorine-specific interactions and, thus, peptide conformation and self-assembly. Here, we designed and explored a series of amphipathic peptides by incorporating the fluorinated amino acids (2S)-4-monofluoroethylglycine (MfeGly), (2S)-4,4-difluoroethylglycine (DfeGly) and (2S)-4,4,4-trifluoroethylglycine (TfeGly) as hydrophobic components. This approach enabled studying the impact of fluorination on secondary structure formation and peptide self-assembly on a systematic basis. We show that the interplay between polarity and hydrophobicity, both induced differentially by varying degrees of side chain fluorination, does affect peptide folding significantly. A greater degree of fluorination promotes peptide fibrillation and subsequent formation of physical hydrogels in physiological conditions. Molecular simulations revealed the key role played by electrostatically driven intra-chain and inter-chain contact pairs that are modulated by side chain fluorination and give insights into the different self-organization behaviour of selected peptides. Our study provides a systematic report about the distinct features of fluorinated oligomeric peptides with potential applications as peptide-based biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suvrat Chowdhary
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 20, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Robert Franz Schmidt
- Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anil Kumar Sahoo
- Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Tiemo Tom Dieck
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 20, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Thomas Hohmann
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 20, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Boris Schade
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Core Facility BioSupraMol, Freie Universität Berlin, Fabeckstraße 36a, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Kerstin Brademann-Jock
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas F Thünemann
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany
| | - Roland R Netz
- Department of Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Gradzielski
- Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Beate Koksch
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 20, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
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6
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Khan N, Gupta A, shivhare V, Ahuja R, Varshney M, Basu A, DuttKonar A. A Heterochiral Diphenylalanine Auxin Derivative empowers Remarkable Mechanical Integrity with promising Antiinflammatory and Antimicrobial Performances. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2nj03240f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of drug-resistant microbes in conjunction with antiinflammatory responses are one of the universal challenges in health care avenues. Although scientists have dedicated enormous efforts to discover potential constructs,...
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7
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Karavasili C, Fatouros DG. Self-assembling peptides as vectors for local drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 174:387-405. [PMID: 33965460 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Molecular self-assembly has forged a new era in the development of advanced biomaterials for local drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. Given their innate biocompatibility and biodegradability, self-assembling peptides (SAPs) have come in the spotlight of such applications. Short and water-soluble SAP biomaterials associated with enhanced pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) responses after the topical administration of the therapeutic systems, or improved regenerative potential in tissue engineering applications will be the focus of the current review. SAPs are capable of generating supramolecular structures using a boundless array of building blocks, while peptide engineering is an approach commonly pursued to encompass the desired traits to the end composite biomaterials. These two elements combined, expand the spectrum of SAPs multi-functionality, constituting them potent biomaterials for use in various biomedical applications.
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8
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Tague AJ, Putsathit P, Riley TV, Keller PA, Pyne SG. Positional Isomers of Biphenyl Antimicrobial Peptidomimetic Amphiphiles. ACS Med Chem Lett 2021; 12:413-419. [PMID: 33738069 PMCID: PMC7957938 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.0c00611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Small-molecule antimicrobial peptidomimetic amphiphiles represent a promising class of novel antimicrobials with the potential for widespread therapeutic application. To investigate the role of spatial positioning for key hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups on the antimicrobial efficacy and selectivity, positional isomers of the lead biphenyl antimicrobial peptidomimetic compound 1 were synthesized and subjected to microbial growth inhibition and mammalian toxicity assays. Positional isomer 4 exhibited 4-8× increased efficacy against the pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli (MIC = 2 μg/mL), while isomers 2, 3, and 7 exhibited a 4× increase in activity against Acinetobacter baumannii (MIC = 4 μg/mL). Changes in molecular shape had a significant impact on Gram-negative antibacterial efficacy and the resultant spectrum of activity, whereas all structural isomers exhibited significant efficacy (MIC = 0.25-8 μg/mL) against Gram-positive bacterial pathogens (e.g., methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Enterococcus faecalis).
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Tague
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University
of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
| | - Papanin Putsathit
- School
of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan
University, Joondalup, Western Australia 6027, Australia
| | - Thomas V. Riley
- School
of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan
University, Joondalup, Western Australia 6027, Australia
- PathWest
Laboratory Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II
Medical Centre, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia
- School
of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Queen Elizabeth
II Medical Centre, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia
- Medical,
Molecular and Forensic Sciences, Murdoch
University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia
| | - Paul A. Keller
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University
of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
| | - Stephen G. Pyne
- School
of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University
of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
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9
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Thota C, Mikolajczak DJ, Roth C, Koksch B. Enhancing Antimicrobial Peptide Potency through Multivalent Presentation on Coiled-Coil Nanofibrils. ACS Med Chem Lett 2021; 12:67-73. [PMID: 33488966 PMCID: PMC7812673 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.0c00425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic-resistant microbes have become a global health threat. New delivery systems that enhance the efficacy of antibiotics and/or overcome the resistances can help combat them. In this context, we present FF03, a fibril-forming α-helical coiled-coil peptide that functions as an efficient scaffold for the multivalent presentation of the weakly cationic antimicrobial peptide (AMP) IN4. The resulting IN4-decorated FF03 coiled-coil fibrils (FF03 + IN4) are nonhemolytic and noncytotoxic and show enhanced antimicrobial activity relative to unconjugated IN4 and standard antibiotics against several bacterial strains. Scanning electron microscopy analysis shows that FF03 + IN4 nanofibers disrupt methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus membranes, indicating a surface-level mode of action. Furthermore, transmission electron microscopy and circular dichroism studies indicate that decoration of the FF03 scaffold with IN4 does not alter the secondary-structure propensity or fibril-forming properties of FF03. Thus, the approach reported herein provides a new peptidic scaffold for the multivalent presentation of AMPs to obtain nonhemolytic and noncytotoxic antimicrobial systems with improved efficacy relative to the unconjugated AMP analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaitanya
Kumar Thota
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Dorian J. Mikolajczak
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Roth
- Department
of Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute
of Colloids and Interfaces, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Beate Koksch
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Takustrasse 3, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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10
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Das AK, Gavel PK. Low molecular weight self-assembling peptide-based materials for cell culture, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, anticancer, drug delivery, bioimaging and 3D bioprinting applications. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:10065-10095. [PMID: 33073836 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm01136c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we have focused on the design and development of low molecular weight self-assembling peptide-based materials for various applications including cell proliferation, tissue engineering, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, wound healing, drug delivery, bioimaging and 3D bioprinting. The first part of the review describes about stimuli and various noncovalent interactions, which are the key components of various self-assembly processes for the construction of organized structures. Subsequently, the chemical functionalization of the peptides has been discussed, which is required for the designing of self-assembling peptide-based soft materials. Various low molecular weight self-assembling peptides have been discussed to explain the important structural features for the construction of defined functional nanostructures. Finally, we have discussed various examples of low molecular weight self-assembling peptide-based materials for cell culture, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, wound healing, drug delivery, bioimaging and 3D bioprinting applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apurba K Das
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Indore 453552, India.
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11
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Carratalá JV, Serna N, Villaverde A, Vázquez E, Ferrer-Miralles N. Nanostructured antimicrobial peptides: The last push towards clinics. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 44:107603. [PMID: 32738381 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Peptide drugs hold great potential for the treatment of infectious diseases due to their unconventional mechanisms of action, biocompatibility, biodegradability and ease of synthesis and modification. The increasing rising of bacterial strains resistant to classical antibiotics have pushed the development of new peptide-based antimicrobial therapies. In this context, over the past few years, different approaches have reached a clinical approval. Furthermore, the application of nanotechnological principles to the design of antimicrobial peptide-based composites increases even more the already known benefits of antimicrobial peptides as competent protein drugs. Then, we provide here an overview of the current strategies for antimicrobial peptide discovery and modification and the status of such peptides already under clinical development. In addition, we summarize the innovative formulation strategies for their application, focusing on the controlled self-assembly for the fabrication of antimicrobial nanostructures without the assistance of external nanocarriers, and with emphasis on bioengineering, design of ultra-short peptides and rising insights in bacterial selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Vicente Carratalá
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
| | - Naroa Serna
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain.
| | - Antonio Villaverde
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain.
| | - Esther Vázquez
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain.
| | - Neus Ferrer-Miralles
- Institut de Biotecnologia i de Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain; CIBER de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain
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