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Hahn D, Han SW, Joumaa V. The history-dependent features of muscle force production: A challenge to the cross-bridge theory and their functional implications. J Biomech 2023; 152:111579. [PMID: 37054597 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2023.111579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
The cross-bridge theory predicts that muscle force is determined by muscle length and the velocity of active muscle length changes. However, before the formulation of the cross-bridge theory, it had been observed that the isometric force at a given muscle length is enhanced or depressed depending on active muscle length changes before that given length is reached. These enhanced and depressed force states are termed residual force enhancement (rFE) and residual force depression (rFD), respectively, and together they are known as the history-dependent features of muscle force production. In this review, we introduce early attempts in explaining rFE and rFD before we discuss more recent research from the past 25 years which has contributed to a better understanding of the mechanisms underpinning rFE and rFD. Specifically, we discuss the increasing number of findings on rFE and rFD which challenge the cross-bridge theory and propose that the elastic element titin plays a role in explaining muscle history-dependence. Accordingly, new three-filament models of force production including titin seem to provide better insight into the mechanism of muscle contraction. Complementary to the mechanisms behind muscle history-dependence, we also show various implications for muscle history-dependence on in-vivo human muscle function such as during stretch-shortening cycles. We conclude that titin function needs to be better understood if a new three-filament muscle model which includes titin, is to be established. From an applied perspective, it remains to be elucidated how muscle history-dependence affects locomotion and motor control, and whether history-dependent features can be changed by training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Hahn
- Human Movement Science, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr University, Bochum, Germany; School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Seong-Won Han
- Institute of Physiology II, Faculty of Medicine, University of Münster, Germany.
| | - Venus Joumaa
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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de Campos D, Orssatto LBR, Trajano GS, Herzog W, Fontana HDB. Residual force enhancement in human skeletal muscles: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 11:94-103. [PMID: 34062271 PMCID: PMC8847921 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We reviewed and appraised the existing evidence of in vivo manifestations of residual force enhancement in human skeletal muscles and assessed, through a meta-analysis, the effect of an immediate history of eccentric contraction on the subsequent torque capacity of voluntary and electrically evoked muscle contractions. METHODS Our search was conducted from database inception to May 2020. Descriptive information was extracted from, and quality was assessed for, 45 studies. Meta-analyses and metaregressions were used to analyze residual torque enhancement and its dependence on the angular amplitude of the preceding eccentric contraction. RESULTS Procedures varied across studies with regards to muscle group tested, angular stretch amplitude, randomization of contractions, time window analyzed, and verbal command. Torque capacity in isometric (constant muscle tendon unit length and joint angle) contractions preceded by an eccentric contraction was typically greater compared to purely isometric contractions, and this effect was greater for electrically evoked muscle contractions than voluntary contractions. Residual torque enhancement differed across muscle groups for the voluntary contractions, with a significant enhancement in torque observed for the adductor pollicis, ankle dorsiflexors, ankle plantar flexors, and knee extensors, but not for the elbow and knee flexors. Meta-regressions revealed that the angular amplitude of the eccentric contraction (normalized to the respective joint's full range of motion) was not associated with the residual torque enhancement observed. CONCLUSION There is evidence of residual torque enhancement for most, but not all, muscle groups, and residual torque enhancement is greater for electrically evoked than for voluntary contractions. Contrary to our hypothesis, and contrary to generally accepted findings on isolated muscle preparations, residual torque enhancement in voluntary and electrically evoked contractions does not seem to depend on the angular amplitude of the preceding eccentric contraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daiani de Campos
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis 88040-001, Brazil
| | - Lucas B R Orssatto
- Faculty of Health, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane QLD 4030, Australia
| | - Gabriel S Trajano
- Faculty of Health, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane QLD 4030, Australia
| | - Walter Herzog
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis 88040-001, Brazil; Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Heiliane de Brito Fontana
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis 88040-001, Brazil; School of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis 88040-900, Brazil.
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Contento VS, Dalton BH, Power GA. The Inhibitory Tendon-Evoked Reflex Is Increased in the Torque-Enhanced State Following Active Lengthening Compared to a Purely Isometric Contraction. Brain Sci 2019; 10:brainsci10010013. [PMID: 31878094 PMCID: PMC7016668 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Residual torque enhancement (rTE) is a history-dependent property of muscle, which results in an increase in steady-state isometric torque production following an active lengthening contraction as compared to a purely isometric (ISO) contraction at the same muscle length and level of activation. Once thought to be only an intrinsic property of muscle, recent evidence during voluntary contractions indicates a neuromechanical coupling between motor neuron excitability and the contractile state of the muscle. However, the mechanism by which this occurs has yet to be elucidated. The purpose of this study was to investigate inhibition arising from tendon-mediated feedback (e.g., Golgi tendon organ; GTO) through tendon electrical stimulation (TStim) in the ISO and rTE states during activation-matching and torque-matching tasks. Fourteen male participants (22 ± 2 years) performed 10 activation-matching contractions at 40% of their maximum tibialis anterior electromyography amplitude (5 ISO/5 rTE) and 10 torque-matching contractions at 40% of their maximum dorsiflexion torque (5 ISO/5 rTE). During both tasks, 10 TStim were delivered during the isometric steady state of all contractions, and the resulting tendon-evoked inhibitory reflexes were averaged and analyzed. Reflex amplitude increased by ~23% in the rTE state compared to the ISO state for the activation-matching task, and no differences were detected for the torque-matching task. The current data indicate an important relationship between afferent feedback in the torque-enhanced state and voluntary control of submaximal contractions. The history-dependent properties of muscle is likely to alter motor neuron excitability through modifications in tension- or torque-mediated afferent feedback arising from the tendon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo S. Contento
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
| | - Brian H. Dalton
- School of Health and Exercise Science, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada;
| | - Geoffrey A. Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada;
- Correspondence:
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4
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On a three-dimensional constitutive model for history effects in skeletal muscles. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2019; 18:1665-1681. [DOI: 10.1007/s10237-019-01167-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Sypkes CT, Kozlowski BJ, Grant J, Bent LR, McNeil CJ, Power GA. The influence of residual force enhancement on spinal and supraspinal excitability. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5421. [PMID: 30083481 PMCID: PMC6078065 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Following active muscle lengthening, there is an increase in steady-state isometric force as compared with a purely isometric contraction at the same muscle length and level of activation. This fundamental property of skeletal muscle is known as residual force enhancement (RFE). While the basic mechanisms contributing to this increase in steady-state isometric force have been well documented, changes in central nervous system (CNS) excitability for submaximal contractions during RFE are unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate spinal and supraspinal excitability in the RFE isometric steady-state following active lengthening of the ankle dorsiflexor muscles. Methods A total of 11 male participants (20–28 years) performed dorsiflexions at a constant level of electromyographic activity (40% of maximum). Half of the contractions were purely isometric (8 s at an ankle angle of 130°), and the other half were during the RFE isometric steady-state following active lengthening (2 s isometric at 90°, a 1 s lengthening phase at 40°/s, and 5 s at 130°). Motor evoked potentials (MEPs), cervicomedullary motor evoked potentials (CMEPs), and compound muscle action potentials (M-waves) were recorded from the tibialis anterior during the purely isometric contraction and RFE isometric steady-state. Results Compared to the purely isometric condition, following active lengthening, there was 10% RFE (p < 0.05), with a 17% decrease in normalized CMEP amplitude (CMEP/Mmax) (p < 0.05) and no change in normalized MEP amplitude (MEP/CMEP) (p > 0.05). Discussion These results indicate that spinal excitability is reduced during submaximal voluntary contractions in the RFE state with no change in supraspinal excitability. These findings may have further implications to everyday life offering insight into how the CNS optimizes control of skeletal muscle following submaximal active muscle lengthening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb T Sypkes
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Benjamin J Kozlowski
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Jordan Grant
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Leah R Bent
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Chris J McNeil
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Geoffrey A Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
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Force–length relation of skeletal muscles: from sarcomeres to myofibril. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2018; 17:1797-1810. [DOI: 10.1007/s10237-018-1057-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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de Brito Fontana H, de Campos D, Sakugawa RL. Predictors of residual force enhancement in voluntary contractions of elbow flexors. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:318-325. [PMID: 30356605 PMCID: PMC6189239 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The steady-state increase in muscle force generating potential following a lengthening contraction is called residual force enhancement (RFE). In this study, we aimed to test for differences in torque, electromyographic activity (EMG), and the associated neuromuscular efficiency (NME) between isometric voluntary contractions of elbow flexors preceded and not preceded by a lengthening contraction. The dependence of such differences on (i) stretch amplitude, (ii) the region of the force-length (FxL) relationship where contraction occurs, and (iii) the individual's ability to produce (negative) work during the stretch was investigated. METHODS Sixteen healthy adults participated in the study. Elbow flexor torque, angle, and biceps brachii EMG for purely isometric contractions (reference contractions) and for isometric contractions preceded by active stretches of 20° and 40° were measured at the ascending, plateau, and descending regions of subject-specific FxL curves. All contractions were performed in an isokinetic dynamometer. Two-factor (stretch × FxL region) repeated measures analysis of variance ANOVAs was used to analyze the effect of active stretch on EMG, torque, and NME across conditions. The relationships between mechanical work during stretch-calculated as the torque-angular displacement integral-and the changes in EMG, torque, and NME were analyzed using Pearson correlation. RESULTS In general, torque, EMG, and NME following active stretches differed from the values observed for the purely isometric reference contractions. While although the detailed effects of active stretch on torque and EMG differed between regions of the FxL relationship, NME increased by about 19% for all muscle lengths. Up to 30% of the interindividual variability in torque generating potential change in response to active stretching was accounted for by differences in (negative) work capacity between subjects. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that (i) RFE contributes to "flatten" the elbow flexor torque-angle relationship, favoring torque production at lengths where the purely isometric torques are reduced substantially, and (ii) RFE contributes to a reduction in energy cost of torque production during isometric contractions for the entire operating range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heiliane de Brito Fontana
- Biological Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Campus Reitor João David Ferreira Lima, Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Campus Reitor João David Ferreira Lima, Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Daiani de Campos
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Campus Reitor João David Ferreira Lima, Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Raphael Luiz Sakugawa
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Campus Reitor João David Ferreira Lima, Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
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History dependence of the electromyogram: Implications for isometric steady-state EMG parameters following a lengthening or shortening contraction. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2016; 27:30-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Corr DT, Herzog W. A cross-bridge based model of force depression: Can a single modification address both transient and steady-state behaviors? J Biomech 2016; 49:726-734. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Koppes RA, Swank DM, Corr DT. A new experimental model for force enhancement: steady-state and transient observations of the Drosophila jump muscle. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2015; 309:C551-7. [PMID: 26289752 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00202.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 08/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The increase in steady-state force after active lengthening in skeletal muscle, termed force enhancement (FE), has been observed for nearly one century. Although demonstrated experimentally at various structural levels, the underlying mechanism(s) remain unknown. We recently showed that the Drosophila jump muscle is an ideal model for investigating mechanisms behind muscle physiological properties, because its mechanical characteristics, tested thus far, duplicate those of fast mammalian skeletal muscles, and Drosophila has the advantage that it can be more easily genetically modified. To determine if Drosophila would be appropriate to investigate FE, we performed classic FE experiments on this muscle. Steady-state FE (FESS), following active lengthening, increased by 3, 7, and 12% of maximum isometric force, with increasing stretch amplitudes of 5, 10, and 20% of optimal fiber length (FLOPT), yet was similar for stretches across increasing stretch velocities of 4, 20, and 200% FLOPT/s. These FESS characteristics of the Drosophila jump muscle closely mimic those observed previously. Jump muscles also displayed typical transient FE characteristics. The transient force relaxation following active stretch was fit with a double exponential, yielding two phases of force relaxation: a fast initial relaxation of force, followed by a slower recovery toward steady state. Our analyses identified a negative correlation between the slow relaxation rate and FESS, indicating that there is likely an active component contributing to FE, in addition to a passive component. Herein, we have established the Drosophila jump muscle as a new and genetically powerful experimental model to investigate the underlying mechanism(s) of FE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan A Koppes
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York; and
| | - Douglas M Swank
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York; and Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Study, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York
| | - David T Corr
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York; and
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Residual force enhancement in humans: Current evidence and unresolved issues. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2015; 25:571-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2015.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Power GA, Herzog W, Rice CL. Decay of force transients following active stretch is slower in older than young men: support for a structural mechanism contributing to residual force enhancement in old age. J Biomech 2014; 47:3423-7. [PMID: 25242133 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2014.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Revised: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Following active lengthening of muscle, force reaches an isometric steady state above that which would be achieved for a purely isometric contraction at the same muscle length. This fundamental property of muscle, termed "residual force enhancement (RFE)," cannot be predicted by the force-length relationship, and is unexplained by the cross-bridge theory of muscle contraction. Recently, we showed that older adults experience higher RFE than young for the ankle dorsiflexors primarily owing to a greater reliance on passive force enhancement (PFE) and similar RFE for the knee extensors but a greater contribution of PFE to total RFE. Natural adult aging may prove a useful model in exploring mechanisms of RFE which may reside in the dissipation of force transients following stretch. A post-hoc analysis was conducted on previously described RFE experiments in young (~26 years) and old (~77 years) men for the dorsiflexors and knee extensors to fit the force following stretch with a biexponential decay. In both muscle groups the decay half-life of the first exponential was two times slower in the older compared with young men. There were significant associations between PFE and the decay in force, suggesting a greater "non-active" contribution to total RFE across muscles in older compared with young men. The greater "non-active" component of RFE in older adults could be due to structural age-related changes causing increased muscle stiffness during and following stretch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey A Power
- Faculty of Kinesiology, Human Performance Laboratory, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
| | - Walter Herzog
- Faculty of Kinesiology, Human Performance Laboratory, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Charles L Rice
- Canadian Centre for Activity and Aging, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, Canada; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The University of Western Ontario, Canada
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