Translating Interdisciplinary Research on Language Learning into Identifying Specific Learning Disabilities in Verbally Gifted and Average Children and Youth

The current research was grounded in prior interdisciplinary research that showed cognitive ability (verbal ability for translating cognitions into oral language) and multiple-working memory endophenotypes (behavioral markers of genetic or brain bases of language learning) predict reading and writing achievement in students with and without specific learning disabilities in written language (SLDs-WL). Results largely replicated prior findings that verbally gifted with dyslexia score higher on reading and writing achievement than those with average verbal ability but not on endophenotypes. The current study extended that research by comparing those with and without SLDs-WL with assessed verbal ability held constant. The verbally gifted without SLDs-WL (n = 14) scored higher than the verbally gifted with SLDs-WL (n = 27) on six language skills (oral sentence construction, best and fastest handwriting in copying, single real word oral reading accuracy, oral pseudoword reading accuracy and rate) and four endophenotypes (orthographic and morphological coding, orthographic loop, and switching attention). The verbally average without SLDs-WL (n = 6) scored higher than the verbally average with SLDs-WL (n = 22) on four language skills (best and fastest handwriting in copying, oral pseudoword reading accuracy and rate) and two endophenotypes (orthographic coding and orthographic loop). Implications of results for translating interdisciplinary research into flexible definitions for assessment and instruction to serve students with varying verbal abilities and language learning and endophenotype profiles are discussed along with directions for future research.

Let's Not Do Away with Comprehensive Cognitive Assessments Just Yet

We review rational and empirical reasons that comprehensive cognitive assessments are useful sources of information in the evaluation and treatment of learning disabilities. However, the existing evidence base that demonstrates the value of comprehensive cognitive assessments for this purpose is not nearly as strong as it needs to be. Proponents of comprehensive cognitive assessments for learning disability identification must do more to rigorously evaluate their beliefs or else concede the argument to those with better evidence.

Knowledge and beliefs about developmental dyslexia in pre-service and in-service Spanish-speaking teachers

The present study investigated knowledge, misconceptions, and lack of information about dyslexia among pre-service (PST) and in-service (IST) Spanish-speaking teachers in Spain and Peru. Two hundred and forty-six pre-service teachers and 267 in-service teachers completed the Knowledge and Beliefs about Developmental Dyslexia Scale (KBDDS). In-service teachers scored significantly higher on the total scale, and on the symptoms/diagnosis and general information subscales, than pre-service teachers. The percentages for misconceptions and lack of information ("do not know responses") were higher for PSTs than for ISTs on the general information subscale, the symptoms/diagnosis subscale, and the treatment subscale. Analyses of individual items were conducted to differentiate concepts that teachers did not know from misconceptions. In-service teacher self-efficacy, years of teaching experience, post-graduate training in dyslexia, and prior exposure to a child with dyslexia were positively related to knowledge about dyslexia. Implications for pre-service teacher training and professional development are discussed.

Psychosocial and Adaptive Deficits Associated With Learning Disability Subtypes

Children with specific learning disabilities (SLD) have deficits in the basic psychological processes that interfere with learning and academic achievement, and for some SLD subtypes, these deficits can also lead to emotional and/or behavior problems. This study examined psychosocial functioning in 123 students, aged 6 to 11, who underwent comprehensive evaluations for learning and/or behavior problems in two Pacific Northwest school districts. Using concordance-discordance model (C-DM) processing strengths and weaknesses SLD identification criteria, results revealed working memory SLD (n = 20), processing speed SLD (n = 30), executive SLD (n = 32), and no disability groups (n = 41). Of the SLD subtypes, repeated measures MANOVA results revealed the processing speed SLD subtype exhibited the greatest psychosocial and adaptive impairment according to teacher behavior ratings. Findings suggest processing speed deficits may be behind the cognitive and psychosocial disturbances found in what has been termed "nonverbal" SLD. Limitations, implications, and future research needs are addressed.

Neuropsychological Profiles of Written Expression Learning Disabilities Determined by Concordance-Discordance Model Criteria

Children with specific learning disabilities (SLD) have disparate neuropsychological processing deficits that interfere with academic achievement in spelling, writing fluency, and/or written expression (WE). Although there are multiple potential causes of WE SLD, there is a paucity of research exploring this critical academic skill from a neuropsychological perspective. This study examined the neuropsychological profiles of WE SLD subtypes defined using the concordance-discordance model (C-DM) of SLD identification. Participants were drawn from a sample of 283 children (194 boys, 89 girls) aged 6 years to 16 years old (M(age) = 9.58 years, SD = 2.29 years) referred for comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations in school settings and subsequently selected based on C-DM determined spelling, writing fluency, and WE SLD. WE SLD subtypes differed on several psychomotor, memory, and executive function measures (F range = 2.48-5.07, p range = .049 to <.001), suggesting that these children exhibit distinct patterns of neuropsychological processing strengths and weaknesses. Findings have relevance for differential diagnosis of WE subtypes, discriminating WE SLD subtypes from low WE achievement, and developing differentiated evidence-based instruction and intervention for children with WE SLD. Limitations and future research will be addressed.

P4 medicine and pediatric occupational therapy

Pediatric occupational therapy practitioners face a complex and ever-changing health care environment, creating many challenges and opportunities. P4 medicine is a systems approach to health care that emphasizes proactive wellness over reactive acute care disease management. The four Ps of P4 medicine stand for predictive, personalized, preventive, and participatory, concepts that align well with the practice of pediatric occupational therapy. P4 medicine offers a model for pediatric occupational therapy practitioners to demonstrate the value of occupational therapy services.

Qualitative differences in learning disabilities across postsecondary institutions

Many college students receiving accommodations for specific learning disability (SLD) do not meet objective criteria for the disorder. Furthermore, whether students meet criteria depends on the diagnostic decision model used by their clinician. The authors examined whether the relationship between diagnostic model and likelihood of meeting objective criteria is moderated by students' postsecondary institution. They administered a comprehensive psychoeducational battery to 98 undergraduates receiving accommodations for SLD at 2-year public colleges, 4-year public universities, and 4-year private colleges. Most 4-year public university students failed to meet objective criteria for SLD. In contrast, most 4-year private college students met objective criteria based on significant ability-achievement discrepancies, and most 2-year public college students met objective criteria based on normative deficits in achievement and cognitive processing. Students who met objective criteria also differed significantly in degree of academic impairment. The authors' findings indicate qualitative differences in SLD across postsecondary settings and have implications for the identification and mitigation of SLD in college students.

Neurocognitive predictors of reading outcomes for children with reading disabilities

This study reports on several specific neurocognitive process predictors of reading outcomes for a sample of 278 children with reading disabilities. Three categories of response (i.e., poor, average, and good) were formed via growth curve models of six reading outcomes. Two nested discriminant function analyses were conducted to evaluate the predictive capability of the following models: (a) an intervention and phonological processing model that included intervention group, phonological awareness, and rapid naming and (b) an additive cognitive neuropsychological model that included measures of memory, visual processes, and cognitive or intellectual functioning. Over and above the substantial explanatory power of the base model, the additive model improved classification of poor and good responders. Several of the cognitive and neuropsychological variables predicted degree of reading outcomes, even after controlling for type of intervention, phonological awareness, and rapid naming.

Effects of three interventions on the reading skills of children with reading disabilities in grade 2

In a longitudinal intervention study, the effects of three intervention strategies on the reading skills of children with reading disabilities in Grade 2 were analyzed. The interventions consisted of computerized training programs: One bottom-up intervention aimed at improving word decoding skills and phonological abilities, the second intervention focused on top-down processing on the word and sentence levels, and the third was a combination of these two training programs (n = 25 in each group). In addition, there were two comparison groups, 25 children with reading disabilities who received ordinary special instruction and 30 age-matched typical readers. All reading disabled participants completed 25 training sessions with special education teachers. All groups improved their reading skills. The group who received combined training showed higher improvements than the ordinary special instruction group and the typical readers. Different cognitive variables were related to treatment gains for different groups. Thus, a treatment combining bottom-up and top-down aspects of reading was the most effective in general, but individual differences among children need to be considered.

Identifying Students With Specific Learning Disabilities: School Psychologists’ Acceptability of the Discrepancy Model Versus Response to Intervention

A national sample of 496 practicing school psychologists and members of the National Association of School Psychologists were surveyed to assess levels of acceptability for the IQ-achievement (IQ-A) discrepancy model and the Response to Intervention (RTI) model as part of the identification process for students with specific learning disabilities. Significantly higher levels of acceptability were found for the RTI model. As levels of exposure to the RTI model increased, acceptability ratings for the RTI model increased and ratings for the IQ-A discrepancy model decreased. Variations in acceptability ratings for the RTI model were also found to occur in relation to school psychologists’ school setting. Specifically, school psychologists employed at middle and high schools demonstrated lower levels of acceptability for the RTI model compared with those employed at elementary and multiple settings. Implications of the study for practice and future research, as well as limitations, are discussed.

Is the Moratorium Over? African American Psychology Professionals’ Views on Intelligence Testing in Response to Changes to Federal Policy

Collectively, advocates for the well-being of African American children have long called for a moratorium on the use of intelligence testing for the placement of children in special education. With the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, intelligence testing is no longer required and in some states prohibited as a tool for assessing learning disabilities. As such, the purpose of this descriptive study is to give an overview of these changes and how they will affect the assessment of African American children. A national sample of African American psychology professionals was surveyed, and the majority indicated that response to intervention (RTI) methodologies alone are not sufficient for special education placement. In addition, there was uncertainty if RTI procedures will reduce African American disproportionality in special education. Results are discussed in terms of the need to increase the number of intervention articles that include African American children and recruiting more African American school psychologists.

Forest Grove School District v. T.A. Supreme Court Case: Implications for School Psychology Practice

The 2009 Forest Grove School District v. T.A. United States Supreme Court case could have significant implications for school psychology practice. The Court ruled that the parents of a student with a disability were entitled to private school tuition reimbursement even though T.A. had not been identified with a disability or previously provided with special education services. The district multidisciplinary team had not identified T.A.’s disability in part because of a limited psychoeducational evaluation that did not assess him in “all areas of suspected disability” which is a requirement of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 20 U.S.C. § 1414(b)(3)(B)). Dissatisfied with the team’s decision, the parents sought an independent comprehensive evaluation of T.A.’s psychological processes which revealed the full nature of his disability and needs. Although T.A. had been unresponsive to interventions in his home school, this comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation led to more targeted interventions in his private school placement and likely contributed to T.A.’s subsequent academic and behavioral success. This Supreme Court case highlights the need for school-based teams to conduct comprehensive evaluations in all areas of suspected disability, including psychological processes such as attention, memory, and executive function. The relevant IDEA 2004 and governing 2006 federal regulations are presented, followed by recommendations for school psychologist assessment practices to ensure compliance with IDEA statutory and regulatory requirements.

Identifying Students With Learning Disabilities: Composite Profile Analysis Using the Cognitive Assessment System

The detection of cognitive patterns in children with learning disabilities (LD) has been a priority in the identification process. Subtest profile analysis from traditional cognitive assessment has drawn sharp criticism for inaccurate identification and weak connections to educational planning. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to use a new generation of cognitive tests with megacluster analysis to augment diagnosis and the instructional process.The Cognitive Assessment System uses a contemporary theoretical model in which composite scores, instead of subtest scores, are used for profile analysis. Ten core profiles from a regular education sample ( N = 1,692) and 12 profiles from a sample of students with LD ( N = 367) were found. The majority of the LD profiles were unique compared with profiles obtained from the general education sample. The implications of this study substantiate the usefulness of profile analysis on composite scores as a critical element in LD determination.