Site-specific degree of phosphorylation in proteins measured by liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry

Phosphorylation of the Bruchpilot N-terminus in Drosophila unlocks axonal transport of active zone building blocks

Protein scaffolds at presynaptic active zone membranes control information transfer at synapses. For scaffold biogenesis and maintenance, scaffold components must be safely transported along axons. A spectrum of kinases has been suggested to control transport of scaffold components, but direct kinase-substrate relationships and operational principles steering phosphorylation-dependent active zone protein transport are presently unknown. Here, we show that extensive phosphorylation of a 150-residue unstructured region at the N-terminus of the highly elongated Bruchpilot (BRP) active zone protein is crucial for ordered active zone precursor transport in Drosophila Point mutations that block SRPK79D kinase-mediated phosphorylation of the BRP N-terminus interfered with axonal transport, leading to BRP-positive axonal aggregates that also contain additional active zone scaffold proteins. Axonal aggregates formed only in the presence of non-phosphorylatable BRP isoforms containing the SRPK79D-targeted N-terminal stretch. We assume that specific active zone proteins are pre-assembled in transport packages and are thus co-transported as functional scaffold building blocks. Our results suggest that transient post-translational modification of a discrete unstructured domain of the master scaffold component BRP blocks oligomerization of these building blocks during their long-range transport.

Tyrosine-phosphorylation of the scaffold protein ADAP and its role in T cell signaling

INTRODUCTION

The Adhesion and Degranulation promoting Adaptor Protein (ADAP) is phosphorylated upon T cell activation and acts as a scaffold for the formation of a signaling complex that integrates molecular interactions between T cell or chemokine receptors, the actin cytoskeleton, and integrin-mediated cellular adhesion and migration.

AREAS COVERED

This article reviews current knowledge of the functions of the adapter protein ADAP in T cell signaling with a focus on the role of individual phosphotyrosine (pY) motifs for SH2 domain mediated interactions. The data presented was obtained from literature searches (PubMed) as well as the authors own research on the topic. Expert commentary: ADAP can be regarded as a paradigmatic example of how tyrosine phosphorylation sites serve as dynamic interaction hubs. Molecular crowding at unstructured and redundant sites (pY595, pY651) is contrasted by more specific interactions enabled by the three-dimensional environment of a particular phosphotyrosine motif (pY571).

Analysis of Phosphorylation-dependent Protein Interactions of Adhesion and Degranulation Promoting Adaptor Protein (ADAP) Reveals Novel Interaction Partners Required for Chemokine-directed T cell Migration

Stimulation of T cells leads to distinct changes of their adhesive and migratory properties. Signal propagation from activated receptors to integrins depends on scaffolding proteins such as the adhesion and degranulation promoting adaptor protein (ADAP)(1). Here we have comprehensively investigated the phosphotyrosine interactome of ADAP in T cells and define known and novel interaction partners of functional relevance. While most phosphosites reside in unstructured regions of the protein, thereby defining classical SH2 domain interaction sites for master regulators of T cell signaling such as SLP76, Fyn-kinase, and NCK, other binding events depend on structural context. Interaction proteomics using different ADAP constructs comprising most of the known phosphotyrosine motifs as well as the structured domains confirm that a distinct set of proteins is attracted by pY571 of ADAP, including the ζ-chain-associated protein kinase of 70 kDa (ZAP70). The interaction of ADAP and ZAP70 is inducible upon stimulation either of the T cell receptor (TCR) or by chemokine. NMR spectroscopy reveals that the N-terminal SH2 domains within a ZAP70-tandem-SH2 construct is the major site of interaction with phosphorylated ADAP-hSH3(N) and microscale thermophoresis (MST) indicates an intermediate binding affinity (Kd = 2.3 μm). Interestingly, although T cell receptor dependent events such as T cell/antigen presenting cell (APC) conjugate formation and adhesion are not affected by mutation of Y571, migration of T cells along a chemokine gradient is compromised. Thus, although most phospho-sites in ADAP are linked to T cell receptor related functions we have identified a unique phosphotyrosine that is solely required for chemokine induced T cell behavior.

Screening for protein phosphorylation using nanoscale reactions on microdroplet arrays

We present a novel and straightforward screening method to detect protein phosphorylations in complex protein mixtures. A proteolytic digest is separated by a conventional nanoscale liquid chromatography (nano-LC) separation and the eluate is immediately compartmentalized into microdroplets, which are spotted on a microarray MALDI plate. Subsequently, the enzyme alkaline phosphatase is applied to every second microarray spot to remove the phosphate groups from phosphorylated peptides, which results in a mass shift of n×-80 Da. The MALDI-MS scan of the microarray is then evaluated by a software algorithm to automatically identify the phosphorylated peptides by exploiting the characteristic chromatographic peak profile induced by the phosphatase treatment. This screening method does not require extensive MS/MS experiments or peak list evaluation and can be easily extended to other enzymatic or chemical reactions.

High density and ligand affinity confer ultrasensitive signal detection by a guanylyl cyclase chemoreceptor

Guanylyl cyclases (GCs), which synthesize the messenger cyclic guanosine 3',5'-monophosphate, control several sensory functions, such as phototransduction, chemosensation, and thermosensation, in many species from worms to mammals. The GC chemoreceptor in sea urchin sperm can decode chemoattractant concentrations with single-molecule sensitivity. The molecular and cellular underpinnings of such ultrasensitivity are not known for any eukaryotic chemoreceptor. In this paper, we show that an exquisitely high density of 3 × 10(5) GC chemoreceptors and subnanomolar ligand affinity provide a high ligand-capture efficacy and render sperm perfect absorbers. The GC activity is terminated within 150 ms by dephosphorylation steps of the receptor, which provides a means for precise control of the GC lifetime and which reduces "molecule noise." Compared with other ultrasensitive sensory systems, the 10-fold signal amplification by the GC receptor is surprisingly low. The hallmarks of this signaling mechanism provide a blueprint for chemical sensing in small compartments, such as olfactory cilia, insect antennae, or even synaptic boutons.

Gas-phase intermolecular phosphate transfer within a phosphohistidine phosphopeptide dimer

The hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions that form between the protonated side chain of a basic residue and the negatively charged phosphate of a phosphopeptide can play crucial roles in governing their dissociation pathways under low-energy collision-induced dissociation (CID). Understanding how phosphoramidate (i.e. phosphohistidine, phospholysine and phosphoarginine), rather than phosphomonoester-containing peptides behave during CID is paramount in investigation of these problematic species by tandem mass spectrometry. To this end, a synthetic peptide containing either phosphohistidine (pHis) or phospholysine (pLys) was analyzed by ESI-MS using a Paul-type ion trap (AmaZon, Bruker) and by traveling wave ion mobility-mass spectrometry (Synapt G2-Si, Waters). Analysis of the products of low-energy CID demonstrated formation of a doubly 'phosphorylated' product ion arising from intermolecular gas-phase phosphate transfer within a phosphopeptide dimer. The results are explained by the formation of a homodimeric phosphohistidine (pHis) peptide non-covalent complex (NCX), likely stabilized by the electrostatic interaction between the pHis phosphate group and the protonated C-terminal lysine residue of the peptide. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report of intermolecular gas-phase phosphate transfer from one phosphopeptide to another, leading to a doubly phosphorylated peptide product ion.

One-source peptide/phosphopeptide ratio standards for accurate and site-specific determination of the degree of phosphorylation

Reversible protein phosphorylation is a key mediator for intracellular signal transduction. Here we describe an innovative method for the production of pairs of peptide standards designed for quantitative mass spectrometry. These standard pairs can be used for site-specific analysis of the degree of phosphorylation of proteins in a bottom-up approach. The method starts from an isotopically labeled phosphopeptide analogue of the analyte phosphopeptide and ends up with a labeled peptide/phosphopeptide ratio standard in which the molar ratio between the phosphorylated and the unphosphorylated form is exactly defined. The signals of the ratio standard are used to standardize the corresponding analyte signals. This compensates for differences in LC recovery or ionization efficiency between the phosphorylated and unphosphorylated forms. The method can also be extended to quantitative analysis of multisite phosphorylation in a single peptide, which is exemplified for the presence of two phosphorylation sites. Peptide/phosphopeptide ratio standards exhibit high ratio accuracy, since ratio adjustment is performed by volumetric operations only.

Site-specific NMR mapping and time-resolved monitoring of serine and threonine phosphorylation in reconstituted kinase reactions and mammalian cell extracts

We outline NMR protocols for site-specific mapping and time-resolved monitoring of protein phosphorylation reactions using purified kinases and mammalian cell extracts. These approaches are particularly amenable to intrinsically disordered proteins and unfolded, regulatory protein domains. We present examples for the ¹⁵N isotope-labeled N-terminal transactivation domain of human p53, which is either sequentially reacted with recombinant enzymes or directly added to mammalian cell extracts and phosphorylated by endogenous kinases. Phosphorylation reactions with purified enzymes are set up in minutes, whereas NMR samples in cell extracts are prepared within 1 h. Time-resolved NMR measurements are performed over minutes to hours depending on the activities of the probed kinases. Phosphorylation is quantitatively monitored with consecutive 2D ¹H-¹⁵N band-selective optimized-flip-angle short-transient (SOFAST)-heteronuclear multiple-quantum (HMQC) NMR experiments, which provide atomic-resolution insights into the phosphorylation levels of individual substrate residues and time-dependent changes thereof, thereby offering unique advantages over western blotting and mass spectrometry.

A proteomics view of the molecular mechanisms and biomarkers of glaucomatous neurodegeneration

Despite improving understanding of glaucoma, key molecular players of neurodegeneration that can be targeted for treatment of glaucoma, or molecular biomarkers that can be useful for clinical testing, remain unclear. Proteomics technology offers a powerful toolbox to accomplish these important goals of the glaucoma research and is increasingly being applied to identify molecular mechanisms and biomarkers of glaucoma. Recent studies of glaucoma using proteomics analysis techniques have resulted in the lists of differentially expressed proteins in human glaucoma and animal models. The global analysis of protein expression in glaucoma has been followed by cell-specific proteome analysis of retinal ganglion cells and astrocytes. The proteomics data have also guided targeted studies to identify post-translational modifications and protein-protein interactions during glaucomatous neurodegeneration. In addition, recent applications of proteomics have provided a number of potential biomarker candidates. Proteomics technology holds great promise to move glaucoma research forward toward new treatment strategies and biomarker discovery. By reviewing the major proteomics approaches and their applications in the field of glaucoma, this article highlights the power of proteomics in translational and clinical research related to glaucoma and also provides a framework for future research to functionally test the importance of specific molecular pathways and validate candidate biomarkers.