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Groce B, Aucoin AV, Ullah MA, DiCesare J, Wingfield C, Sardin J, Harris JT, Nguyen JC, Raley P, Stanley SS, Palardy G, Pojman JA. Free-Standing 3D Printing of Epoxy-Vinyl Ether Structures Using Radical-Induced Cationic Frontal Polymerization. ACS APPLIED POLYMER MATERIALS 2024; 6:572-582. [PMID: 38230368 PMCID: PMC10788858 DOI: 10.1021/acsapm.3c02226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
The application of frontal polymerization to additive manufacturing has advantages in energy consumption and speed of printing. Additionally, with frontal polymerization, it is possible to print free-standing structures that require no supports. A resin was developed using a mixture of epoxies and vinyl ether with an iodonium salt and peroxide initiating system that frontally polymerizes through radical-induced cationic frontal polymerization. The formulation, which was optimized for reactivity, physical properties, and rheology, allowed the printing of free-standing structures. Increasing ratios of vinyl ether and reactive cycloaliphatic epoxide were found to increase the front velocity. Addition of carbon nanofibers increased the front velocity more than the addition of milled carbon fibers. The resin filled with carbon nanofibers and fumed silica exhibited shear-thinning behavior and was suitable for extrusion-based printing at a weight fraction of 4 wt %. A desktop 3D printer was modified to control resin extrusion and deposition with a digital syringe dispenser. Flexural properties of molded and 3D-printed specimens showed that specimens printed in the transverse direction exhibited the lowest strength, likely due to the presence of voids, adhesion issues between filaments, and preferential carbon nanofiber alignment along the filaments. Finally, free-standing printing of single, angled filaments and helical geometries was successfully demonstrated by coordinating ultraviolet-based reaction initiation, low air pressure for resin extrusion, and printing speed to match front velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brecklyn
R. Groce
- Department
of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Alexandra V. Aucoin
- Department
of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Md Asmat Ullah
- Department
of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3261 Patrick F. Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Jake DiCesare
- Department
of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Claire Wingfield
- Department
of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Jonathan Sardin
- Department
of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3261 Patrick F. Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Jackson T. Harris
- Department
of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3261 Patrick F. Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - John C. Nguyen
- Department
of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3261 Patrick F. Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Patrick Raley
- Department
of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3261 Patrick F. Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Svetlana S. Stanley
- Department
of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3261 Patrick F. Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Genevieve Palardy
- Department
of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3261 Patrick F. Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - John A. Pojman
- Department
of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
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2
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Luo T, Ma Y, Cui X. Review on Frontal Polymerization Behavior for Thermosetting Resins: Materials, Modeling and Application. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:185. [PMID: 38256983 PMCID: PMC10818476 DOI: 10.3390/polym16020185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The traditional curing methods for thermosetting resins are energy-inefficient and environmentally unfriendly. Frontal polymerization (FP) is a self-sustaining process relying on the exothermic heat of polymerization. During FP, the external energy input (such as UV light input or heating) is only required at the initial stage to trigger a localized reaction front. FP is regarded as the rapid and energy-efficient manufacturing of polymers. The precise control of FP is essential for several manufacturing technologies, such as 3D printing, depending on the materials and the coupling of thermal transfer and polymerization. In this review, recent progress on the materials, modeling, and application of FP for thermosetting resins are presented. First, the effects of resin formulations and mixed fillers on FP behavior are discussed. Then, the basic mathematical model and reaction-thermal transfer model of FP are introduced. After that, recent developments in FP-based manufacturing applications are introduced in detail. Finally, this review outlines a roadmap for future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xiaoyu Cui
- School of Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; (T.L.); (Y.M.)
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3
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Groce B, Lane EE, Gary DP, Ngo DT, Ngo DT, Shaon F, Belgodere JA, Pojman JA. Kinetic and Chemical Effects of Clays and Other Fillers in the Preparation of Epoxy-Vinyl Ether Composites Using Radical-Induced Cationic Frontal Polymerization. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:19403-19413. [PMID: 37027250 PMCID: PMC10119861 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c00187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Addition of fillers to formulations can generate composites with improved mechanical properties and lower the overall cost through a reduction of chemicals needed. In this study, fillers were added to resin systems consisting of epoxies and vinyl ethers that frontally polymerized through a radical-induced cationic frontal polymerization (RICFP) mechanism. Different clays, along with inert fumed silica, were added to increase the viscosity and reduce the convection, results of which did not follow many trends present in free-radical frontal polymerization. The clays were found to reduce the front velocity of RICFP systems overall compared to systems with only fumed silica. It is hypothesized that chemical effects and water content produce this reduction when clays are added to the cationic system. Mechanical and thermal properties of composites were studied, along with filler dispersion in the cured material. Drying the clays in an oven increased the front velocity. Comparing thermally insulating wood flour to thermally conducting carbon fibers, we observed that the carbon fibers resulted in an increase in front velocity, while the wood flour reduced the front velocity. Finally, it was shown that acid-treated montmorillonite K10 polymerizes RICFP systems containing vinyl ether even in the absence of an initiator, resulting in a short pot life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brecklyn
R. Groce
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Emma E. Lane
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Daniel P. Gary
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Douglas T. Ngo
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Dylan T. Ngo
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Fahima Shaon
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Jorge A. Belgodere
- Department
of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - John A. Pojman
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
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4
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Suslick BA, Hemmer J, Groce BR, Stawiasz KJ, Geubelle PH, Malucelli G, Mariani A, Moore JS, Pojman JA, Sottos NR. Frontal Polymerizations: From Chemical Perspectives to Macroscopic Properties and Applications. Chem Rev 2023; 123:3237-3298. [PMID: 36827528 PMCID: PMC10037337 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis and processing of most thermoplastics and thermoset polymeric materials rely on energy-inefficient and environmentally burdensome manufacturing methods. Frontal polymerization is an attractive, scalable alternative due to its exploitation of polymerization heat that is generally wasted and unutilized. The only external energy needed for frontal polymerization is an initial thermal (or photo) stimulus that locally ignites the reaction. The subsequent reaction exothermicity provides local heating; the transport of this thermal energy to neighboring monomers in either a liquid or gel-like state results in a self-perpetuating reaction zone that provides fully cured thermosets and thermoplastics. Propagation of this polymerization front continues through the unreacted monomer media until either all reactants are consumed or sufficient heat loss stalls further reaction. Several different polymerization mechanisms support frontal processes, including free-radical, cat- or anionic, amine-cure epoxides, and ring-opening metathesis polymerization. The choice of monomer, initiator/catalyst, and additives dictates how fast the polymer front traverses the reactant medium, as well as the maximum temperature achievable. Numerous applications of frontally generated materials exist, ranging from porous substrate reinforcement to fabrication of patterned composites. In this review, we examine in detail the physical and chemical phenomena that govern frontal polymerization, as well as outline the existing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Suslick
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Julie Hemmer
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Brecklyn R Groce
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 United States
| | - Katherine J Stawiasz
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Philippe H Geubelle
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Giulio Malucelli
- Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, 15121 Alessandria, Italy
| | - Alberto Mariani
- Department of Chemical, Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology, 50121 Firenze, Italy
| | - Jeffrey S Moore
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - John A Pojman
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 United States
| | - Nancy R Sottos
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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5
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Ma Y, Liu Z, Qian X, Zhao Y, Li M, Li P. Effect of Excessive Iodonium Salts on the Properties of Radical-Induced Cationic Frontal Polymerization (RICFP) of Epoxy Resin. Ind Eng Chem Res 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c04134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yunlong Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zhenyi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xinming Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Mingzhi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Pengliang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
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6
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Park J, Kwak SY. Frontal polymerization-triggered simultaneous ring-opening metathesis polymerization and cross metathesis affords anisotropic macroporous dicyclopentadiene cellulose nanocrystal foam. Commun Chem 2022; 5:119. [PMID: 36697913 PMCID: PMC9814902 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-022-00740-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Multifunctionality and effectiveness of macroporous solid foams in extreme environments have captivated the attention of both academia and industries. The most recent rapid, energy-efficient strategy to manufacture solid foams with directionality is the frontal polymerization (FP) of dicyclopentadiene (DCPD). However, there still remains the need for a time efficient one-pot approach to induce anisotropic macroporosity in DCPD foams. Here we show a rapid production of cellular solids by frontally polymerizing a mixture of DCPD monomer and allyl-functionalized cellulose nanocrystals (ACs). Our results demonstrate a clear correlation between increasing % allylation and AC wt%, and the formed pore architectures. Especially, we show enhanced front velocity (vf) and reduced reaction initiation time (tinit) by introducing an optimal amount of 2 wt% AC. Conclusively, the small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS, WAXS) analyses reveal that the incorporation of 2 wt% AC affects the crystal structure of FP-mediated DCPD/AC foams and enhances their oxidation resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinsu Park
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 South Korea
| | - Seung-Yeop Kwak
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 South Korea ,grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Research Institute of Advanced Materials (RIAM), Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 South Korea ,grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 South Korea
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7
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Wang Y. Modeling the through‐thickness frontal polymerization of unidirectional carbon fiber thermoset composites: Effect of microstructures. J Appl Polym Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/app.52735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yeqing Wang
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering Syracuse University Syracuse New York USA
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8
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Ma Q, Buchon L, Magné V, Graff B, Morlet‐Savary F, Xu Y, Benltifa M, Lakhdar S, Lalevée J. Charge Transfer Complexes (CTCs) with Pyridinium Salts: Towards Efficient Dual Photochemical/Thermal Initiators and 3D Printing Applications. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2200314. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.202200314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Ma
- CNRS Université de Haute‐Alsace IS2M UMR 7361 Mulhouse F‐68100 France
- Université de Strasbourg Strasbourg F‐67081 France
- Key Laboratory of Molecule Synthesis and Function Discovery (Fujian Province University) College of Chemistry Fuzhou University Fuzhou 350116 P. R. China
| | - Loïc Buchon
- CNRS Université de Haute‐Alsace IS2M UMR 7361 Mulhouse F‐68100 France
| | - Valentin Magné
- Laboratoire Hétérochimie Fondamentale et Appliquée UMR CNRS Université Paul Sabatier France
| | - Bernadette Graff
- CNRS Université de Haute‐Alsace IS2M UMR 7361 Mulhouse F‐68100 France
| | | | - Yangyang Xu
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science Anhui Normal University South Jiuhua Road 189 Wuhu 241002 P. R. China
| | - Mahmoud Benltifa
- Laboratory of Wastewaters and Environment Center for Water Research and Technologies CERTE BP 273 Soliman 8020 Tunisia
| | - Sami Lakhdar
- Laboratoire Hétérochimie Fondamentale et Appliquée UMR CNRS Université Paul Sabatier France
| | - Jacques Lalevée
- CNRS Université de Haute‐Alsace IS2M UMR 7361 Mulhouse F‐68100 France
- Université de Strasbourg Strasbourg F‐67081 France
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9
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Gary DP, Ngo D, Bui A, Pojman JA. Charge transfer complexes as dual thermal/photo initiators for
free‐radical
frontal polymerization. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P. Gary
- Department of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
| | - Douglas Ngo
- Department of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
| | - Amber Bui
- Department of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
| | - John A. Pojman
- Department of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
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