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Koistinen H, Künnapuu J, Jeltsch M. KLK3 in the Regulation of Angiogenesis-Tumorigenic or Not? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413545. [PMID: 34948344 PMCID: PMC8704207 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this focused review, we address the role of the kallikrein-related peptidase 3 (KLK3), also known as prostate-specific antigen (PSA), in the regulation of angiogenesis. Early studies suggest that KLK3 is able to inhibit angiogenic processes, which is most likely dependent on its proteolytic activity. However, more recent evidence suggests that KLK3 may also have an opposite role, mediated by the ability of KLK3 to activate the (lymph)angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factors VEGF-C and VEGF-D, further discussed in the review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannu Koistinen
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, 00290 Helsinki, Finland
- Correspondence: (H.K.); (M.J.)
| | - Jaana Künnapuu
- Drug Research Program, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Michael Jeltsch
- Drug Research Program, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
- Individualized Drug Therapy Research Program, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Wihuri Research Institute, 00290 Helsinki, Finland
- Correspondence: (H.K.); (M.J.)
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Li H, Ma Z, Che Z, Li Q, Fan J, Zhou Z, Wu Y, Jin Y, Liang P, Che X. Comprehensive role of prostate-specific antigen identified with proteomic analysis in prostate cancer. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:10202-10215. [PMID: 33107155 PMCID: PMC7520270 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Current treatments including androgen deprivation fail to prevent prostate cancer (PrCa) from progressing to castration-resistant PrCa (CRPC). Accumulating evidence highlights the relevance of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the development and progression of PrCa. The underlying mechanism whereby PSA functions in PrCa, however, has yet been elucidated. We demonstrated that PSA knockdown attenuated tumorigenesis and metastasis of PrCa C4-2 cells in vitro and in vivo, whereas promoted the apoptosis in vitro. To illuminate the comprehensive role of PSA in PrCa, we performed an isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-based proteomic analysis to explore the proteomic change induced by PSA knockdown. Among 121 differentially expressed proteins, 67 proteins were up-regulated, while 54 proteins down-regulated. Bioinformatics analysis was used to explore the mechanism through which PSA exerts influence on PrCa. Protein-protein interaction analysis showed that PSA may mediate POTEF, EPHA3, RAD51C, HPGD and MCM4 to promote the initiation and progression of PrCa. We confirmed that PSA knockdown induced the up-regulation of MCM4 and RAD51C, while it down-regulated POTEF and EPHA3; meanwhile, MCM4 was higher in PrCa para-cancerous tissue than in cancerous tissue, suggesting that PSA may facilitate the tumorigenesis by mediating MCM4. Our findings suggest that PSA plays a comprehensive role in the development and progression of PrCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyong Li
- Department of Urology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhe Ma
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Zhifei Che
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Jinfeng Fan
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Zhiyan Zhou
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Yaoxi Wu
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Yingxia Jin
- Central Laboratory, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Peiyu Liang
- Department of Urology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
| | - Xianping Che
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, China
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Kostova MB, Nathaniel Brennen W, Lopez D, Anthony L, Wang H, Platz E, Denmeade SR. PSA-alpha-2-macroglobulin complex is enzymatically active in the serum of patients with advanced prostate cancer and can degrade circulating peptide hormones. Prostate 2018; 78:819-829. [PMID: 29659051 PMCID: PMC8147660 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate cancer cells produce high levels of the serine protease Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA). PSA is enzymatically active in the tumor microenvironment but is presumed to be enzymatically inactive in the blood due to complex formation with serum protease inhibitors α-1-antichymotrypsin and α-2-macroglobulin (A2M). PSA-A2M complexes cannot be measured by standard ELISA assays and are also rapidly cleared from the circulation. Thus the exact magnitude of PSA production by prostate cancer cells is not easily measured. The PSA complexed to A2M is unable to cleave proteins but maintains the ability to cleave small peptide substrates. Thus, in advanced prostate cancer, sufficient PSA-A2M may be in circulation to effect total A2M levels, levels of cytokines bound to A2M and hydrolyze small circulating peptide hormones. METHODS Total A2M levels in men with advanced prostate cancer and PSA levels above 1000 ng/mL were measured by ELISA and compared to controls. Additional ELISA assays were used to measure levels of IL-6 and TGF-beta which can bind to A2M. The ability of PSA-A2M complexes to hydrolyze protein and peptide substrates was analyzed ± PSA inhibitor. Enzymatic activity of PSA-A2M in serum of men with high PSA levels was also assayed. RESULTS Serum A2M levels are inversely correlated with PSA levels in men with advanced prostate cancer. Il-6 Levels are significantly elevated in men with PSA >1000 ng/mL compared to controls with PSA <0.1 ng/mL. PSA-A2M complex in serum of men with PSA levels >1000 ng/mL can hydrolyze small fluorescently labeled peptide substrates but not large proteins that are PSA substrates. PSA can hydrolyze small peptide hormones like PTHrP and osteocalcin. PSA complexed to A2M retains the ability to degrade PTHrP. CONCLUSIONS In advanced prostate cancer with PSA levels >1000 ng/mL, sufficient PSA-A2M is present in circulation to produce enzymatic activity against circulating small peptide hormones. Sufficient PSA is produced in advanced prostate cancer to alter total A2M levels, which can potentially alter levels of a variety of growth factors such as IL-6, TGF-beta, basic FGF, and PDGF. Alterations in levels of these cytokines and proteolytic degradation of small peptide hormones may have profound effect on host-cancer interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya B. Kostova
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | | | - David Lopez
- Department of Epidemiology, The University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston, Texas
| | - Lizamma Anthony
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Elizabeth Platz
- Department of Epidemiology, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Samuel R. Denmeade
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Sangster-Guity N, Tu-Sekine B, Raben DM, Denmeade SR, Williams SA. Mutational Analysis of Prostate-Specific Antigen Defines the Intrinsic Proteolytic Activity of the proPSA Zymogen. Prostate 2016; 76:1203-17. [PMID: 27273171 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is an important prostate cancer biomarker. It is also a protease expressed at high concentrations by the normal and malignant prostate. PSA is secreted as a zymogen (proPSA) with an inhibitory prodomain that must be removed for full activity. ProPSA variants, assumed to be inactive, are found in the blood of prostate cancer patients, and are indicative of poor clinical outcome. Despite the abundance of clinical reports, our understanding of PSA's enzymology is limited, in part due to a lack of appropriate experimental systems. We sought to develop a series of PSA-derived mutants that would help to enhance our understanding of the gene. METHODS Sixteen rPSA variants were generated and characterized by a variety of biochemical methods. RESULTS The wildtype cDNA (WT) provided the template for generating a panel of recombinants. These included variants that abolished removal of the prodomain (R24A), disabled its enzymatic activity (S213A), and/or facilitated a cell-based conversion to the active conformation (FR). The purified variants' proteolytic activity was examined using a fluorogenic substrate, known PSA-cleavable proteins, and physiologically relevant inhibitors. Upon demonstrating our successful generation and purification of the PSA variants, we characterized proPSA activity, describing cleavage of synthetic and biologic substrates, but not serum protease inhibitors. This finding was exploited in the development of a self-activating mutant (PSA_QY) that exhibited the greatest enzymatic activity of all the variants. CONCLUSIONS The system described herein will prove useful for varied applications. ProPSA is partially functional with relatively high activity compared to the mature enzyme. In demonstrating the zymogen's intrinsic activity, we suggest that the proPSA in prostate cancer patient serum is not inert. This may have implications for our understanding of the disease. Prostate 76:1203-1217, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niquiche Sangster-Guity
- Brady Urological Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Becky Tu-Sekine
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Daniel M Raben
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Samuel R Denmeade
- Brady Urological Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Simon A Williams
- Brady Urological Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Mattsson JM, Ravela S, Hekim C, Jonsson M, Malm J, Närvänen A, Stenman UH, Koistinen H. Proteolytic activity of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) towards protein substrates and effect of peptides stimulating PSA activity. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107819. [PMID: 25237904 PMCID: PMC4169579 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA or kallikrein-related peptidase-3, KLK3) exerts chymotrypsin-like proteolytic activity. The main biological function of PSA is the liquefaction of the clot formed after ejaculation by cleavage of semenogelins I and II in seminal fluid. PSA also cleaves several other substrates, which may explain its putative functions in prostate cancer and its antiangiogenic activity. We compared the proteolytic efficiency of PSA towards several protein and peptide substrates and studied the effect of peptides stimulating the activity of PSA with these substrates. An endothelial cell tube formation model was used to analyze the effect of PSA-degraded protein fragments on angiogenesis. We showed that PSA degrades semenogelins I and II much more efficiently than other previously identified protein substrates, e.g., fibronectin, galectin-3 and IGFBP-3. We identified nidogen-1 as a new substrate for PSA. Peptides B2 and C4 that stimulate the activity of PSA towards small peptide substrates also enhanced the proteolytic activity of PSA towards protein substrates. Nidogen-1, galectin-3 or their fragments produced by PSA did not have any effect on endothelial cell tube formation. Although PSA cleaves several other protein substrates, in addition to semenogelins, the physiological importance of this activity remains speculative. The PSA levels in prostate are very high, but several other highly active proteases, such as hK2 and trypsin, are also expressed in the prostate and may cleave protein substrates that are weakly cleaved by PSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna M. Mattsson
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Suvi Ravela
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Can Hekim
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Magnus Jonsson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Section for Clinical Chemistry, Lund University and Laboratory Medicine Skåne, Lund, Sweden
| | - Johan Malm
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Section for Clinical Chemistry, Lund University and Laboratory Medicine Skåne, Lund, Sweden
| | - Ale Närvänen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Ulf-Håkan Stenman
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hannu Koistinen
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
- * E-mail:
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