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Zhang X, Connelly J, Chao Y, Wang QJ. Multifaceted Functions of Protein Kinase D in Pathological Processes and Human Diseases. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11030483. [PMID: 33807058 PMCID: PMC8005150 DOI: 10.3390/biom11030483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein kinase D (PKD) is a family of serine/threonine protein kinases operating in the signaling network of the second messenger diacylglycerol. The three family members, PKD1, PKD2, and PKD3, are activated by a variety of extracellular stimuli and transduce cell signals affecting many aspects of basic cell functions including secretion, migration, proliferation, survival, angiogenesis, and immune response. Dysregulation of PKD in expression and activity has been detected in many human diseases. Further loss- or gain-of-function studies at cellular levels and in animal models provide strong support for crucial roles of PKD in many pathological conditions, including cancer, metabolic disorders, cardiac diseases, central nervous system disorders, inflammatory diseases, and immune dysregulation. Complexity in enzymatic regulation and function is evident as PKD isoforms may act differently in different biological systems and disease models, and understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying these differences and their biological significance in vivo is essential for the development of safer and more effective PKD-targeted therapies. In this review, to provide a global understanding of PKD function, we present an overview of the PKD family in several major human diseases with more focus on cancer-associated biological processes.
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Nickkholgh B, Sittadjody S, Rothberg MB, Fang X, Li K, Chou JW, Hawkins GA, Balaji K. Beta-catenin represses protein kinase D1 gene expression by non-canonical pathway through MYC/MAX transcription complex in prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2017; 8:78811-78824. [PMID: 29108267 PMCID: PMC5668000 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.20229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Down regulation of Protein Kinase D1 (PrKD1), a novel serine threonine kinase, in prostate, gastric, breast and colon cancers in humans leads to disease progression. While the down regulation of PrKD1 by DNA methylation in gastric cancer and by nuclear beta-catenin in colon cancer has been shown, the regulatory mechanisms in other cancers are unknown. Because we had demonstrated that PrKD1 is the only known kinase to phosphorylate threonine 120 (T120) of beta-catenin in prostate cancer resulting in increased nuclear beta-catenin, we explored the role of beta-catenin in gene regulation of PrKD1. An initial CHIP assay identified potential binding sites for beta-catenin in and downstream of PrKD1 promoter and sequencing confirmed recruitment of beta-catenin to a 166 base pairs sequence upstream of exon 2. Co-transfection studies with PrKD1-promoter-reporter suggested that beta-catenin represses PrKD1 promoter. Efforts to identify transcription factors that mediate the co-repressor effects of beta-catenin identified recruitment of both MYC and its obligate heterodimer MAX to the same binding site as beta-catenin on the PrKD1 promoter site. Moreover, treatment with MYC inhibitor rescued the co-repressor effect of beta-catenin on PrKD1 gene expression. Prostate specific knock out of PrKD1 in transgenic mice demonstrated increased nuclear expression of beta-catenin validating the in vitro studies. Functional studies showed that nuclear translocation of beta-catenin as a consequence of PrKD1 down regulation, increases AR transcriptional activity with attendant downstream effects on androgen responsive genes. In silico human gene expression analysis confirmed the down regulation of PrKD1 in metastatic prostate cancer correlated inversely with the expression of MAX, but not MYC, and positively with MXD1, a competing heterodimer of MAX, suggesting that the dimerization of MAX with either MYC or MXD1 regulates PrKD1 gene expression. The study has identified a novel auto-repressive loop that perpetuates PrKD1 down regulation through beta-catenin/MYC/MAX protein complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bita Nickkholgh
- Department of Physiology-Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFRM), Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Sivanandane Sittadjody
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFRM), Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | | | - Xiaolan Fang
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFRM), Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Department of Cancer Biology, School of Medicine, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Current/Present address: Clinical Bioinformatics, New York Genome Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kunzhao Li
- Biology Department, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Jeff W. Chou
- Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Wake Forest Baptist Health, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Gregory A. Hawkins
- Center for Genomics and Personalized Medicine and WFB Comprehensive Cancer Center, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - K.C. Balaji
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFRM), Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
- Department of Urology, Wake Forest Baptist Health, Winston Salem, NC, USA
- W.G.(Bill) Hefner Veterans Administration Medical Center, Salisbury, NC, USA
- Department of Cancer Biology, School of Medicine, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
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Gómez-Cuadrado L, Tracey N, Ma R, Qian B, Brunton VG. Mouse models of metastasis: progress and prospects. Dis Model Mech 2017; 10:1061-1074. [PMID: 28883015 PMCID: PMC5611969 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.030403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Metastasis is the spread of cancer cells from a primary tumor to distant sites within the body to establish secondary tumors. Although this is an inefficient process, the consequences are devastating as metastatic disease accounts for >90% of cancer-related deaths. The formation of metastases is the result of a series of events that allow cancer cells to escape from the primary site, survive in the lymphatic system or blood vessels, extravasate and grow at distant sites. The metastatic capacity of a tumor is determined by genetic and epigenetic changes within the cancer cells as well as contributions from cells in the tumor microenvironment. Mouse models have proven to be an important tool for unraveling the complex interactions involved in the metastatic cascade and delineating its many stages. Here, we critically appraise the strengths and weaknesses of the current mouse models and highlight the recent advances that have been made using these models in our understanding of metastasis. We also discuss the use of these models for testing potential therapies and the challenges associated with the translation of these findings into the provision of new and effective treatments for cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Gómez-Cuadrado
- Edinburgh Cancer Research Centre, Institute for Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, UK
| | - Natasha Tracey
- Edinburgh Cancer Research Centre, Institute for Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, UK
| | - Ruoyu Ma
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Binzhi Qian
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Edinburgh Cancer Research UK Centre, Queen's Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Valerie G Brunton
- Edinburgh Cancer Research Centre, Institute for Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, UK
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NickKholgh B, Fang X, Winters SM, Raina A, Pandya KS, Gyabaah K, Fino N, Balaji K. Cell line modeling to study biomarker panel in prostate cancer. Prostate 2016; 76:245-58. [PMID: 26764245 PMCID: PMC4942245 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND African-American men with prostate cancer (PCa) present with higher-grade and -stage tumors compared to Caucasians. While the disparity may result from multiple factors, a biological basis is often strongly suspected. Currently, few well-characterized experimental model systems are available to study the biological basis of racial disparity in PCa. We report a validated in vitro cell line model system that could be used for the purpose. METHODS We assembled a PCa cell line model that included currently available African-American PCa cell lines and LNCaP (androgen-dependent) and C4-2 (castration-resistant) Caucasian PCa cells. The utility of the cell lines in studying the biological basis of variance in a malignant phenotype was explored using a multiplex biomarker panel consisting of proteins that have been proven to play a role in the progression of PCa. The panel expression was evaluated by Western blot and RT-PCR in cell lines and validated in human PCa tissues by RT-PCR. As proof-of-principle to demonstrate the utility of our model in functional studies, we performed MTS viability assays and molecular studies. RESULTS The dysregulation of the multiplex biomarker panel in primary African-American cell line (E006AA) was similar to metastatic Caucasian cell lines, which would suggest that the cell line model could be used to study an inherent aggressive phenotype in African-American men with PCa. We had previously demonstrated that Protein kinase D1 (PKD1) is a novel kinase that is down regulated in advanced prostate cancer. We established the functional relevance by over expressing PKD1, which resulted in decreased proliferation and epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) in PCa cells. Moreover, we established the feasibility of studying the expression of the multiplex biomarker panel in archived human PCa tissue from African-Americans and Caucasians as a prelude to future translational studies. CONCLUSION We have characterized a novel in vitro cell line model that could be used to study the biological basis of disparity in PCa between African-Americans and Caucasians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bita NickKholgh
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFIRM), Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Xiaolan Fang
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFIRM), Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
- Department of Cancer Biology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Shira M. Winters
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Anvi Raina
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Komal S. Pandya
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFIRM), Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Kenneth Gyabaah
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFIRM), Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - Nora Fino
- Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - K.C. Balaji
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (WFIRM), Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
- Department of Cancer Biology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
- Department of Urology, Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
- Chief of Urology, W.G. (Bill) Hefner Veterans Administration Medical Center, Salisbury, North Carolina
- Correspondence to: K.C. Balaji, Department of Urology, Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27157.
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