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Liao C, Huang Z, Liu J, Deng M, Wang L, Chen Y, Li J, Zhao J, Luo X, Zhu J, Wu Q, Fu W, Sun B, Zheng J. Role of extracellular vesicles in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2024; 197:104348. [PMID: 38588967 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2024.104348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) is a common health threat to men worldwide, and castration-resistant PCa (CRPC) is the leading cause of PCa-related deaths. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer compartments secreted by living cells that are important mediators of intercellular communication. EVs regulate the biological processes of recipient cells by transmitting heterogeneous cargoes, contributing to CRPC occurrence, progression, and drug resistance. These EVs originate not only from malignant cells, but also from various cell types within the tumor microenvironment. EVs are widely dispersed throughout diverse biological fluids and are attractive biomarkers derived from noninvasive liquid biopsy techniques. EV quantities and cargoes have been tested as potential biomarkers for CRPC diagnosis, progression, drug resistance, and prognosis; however, technical barriers to their clinical application continue to exist. Furthermore, exogenous EVs may provide tools for new therapies for CRPC. This review summarizes the current evidence on the role of EVs in CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoyu Liao
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Zeyu Huang
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Jingui Liu
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Min Deng
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Leyi Wang
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Yutong Chen
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Jia Li
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Jiang Zhao
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Xing Luo
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Jingzhen Zhu
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Qingjian Wu
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Weihua Fu
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Bishao Sun
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China.
| | - Ji Zheng
- Department of Urology, Urologic Surgery Center, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400037, China.
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Ma X, Ying F, Li Z, Bai L, Wang M, Zhu D, Liu D, Wen J, Zhao G, Liu R. New insights into the genetic loci related to egg weight and age at first egg traits in broiler breeder. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103613. [PMID: 38492250 PMCID: PMC10959720 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Egg weight (EW) and age at first egg (AFE) are economically important traits in breeder chicken production. The genetic basis of these traits, however, is far from understood, especially for broiler breeders. In this study, genetic parameter estimation, genome-wide association analysis, meta-analysis, and selective sweep analysis were carried out to identify genetic loci associated with EW and AFE in 6,842 broiler breeders. The study found that the heritability of EW ranged from 0.42 to 0.44, while the heritability of AFE was estimated at 0.33 in the maternal line. Meta-analysis and selective sweep analysis identified two colocalized regions on GGA4 that significantly influenced EW at 32 wk (EW32W) and at 43 wk (EW43W) with both paternal and maternal lines. The genes AR, YIPF6, and STARD8 were located within the significant region (GGA4: 366.86-575.50 kb), potentially affecting EW through the regulation of follicle development, cell proliferation, and lipid transfer etc. The promising genes LCORL and NCAPG were positioned within the significant region (GGA4:75.35-75.42 Mb), potentially influencing EW through pleiotropic effects on growth and development. Additionally, 3 significant regions were associated with AFE on chromosomes GGA7, GGA19, and GGA27. All of these factors affected the AFE by influencing ovarian development. In our study, the genomic information from both paternal and maternal lines was used to identify genetic regions associated with EW and AFE. Two genomic regions and eight genes were identified as the most likely candidates affecting EW and AFE. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the genetic basis of egg production traits in broiler breeders and provide new insights into future technology development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding; Key Laboratory of Animal (Poultry) Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Fan Ying
- Foshan Gaoming Xinguang Agricultural and Animal Industrials Corporation, Foshan 528515, China
| | - Zhengda Li
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding; Key Laboratory of Animal (Poultry) Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lu Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding; Key Laboratory of Animal (Poultry) Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Mengjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding; Key Laboratory of Animal (Poultry) Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Dan Zhu
- Foshan Gaoming Xinguang Agricultural and Animal Industrials Corporation, Foshan 528515, China
| | - Dawei Liu
- Foshan Gaoming Xinguang Agricultural and Animal Industrials Corporation, Foshan 528515, China
| | - Jie Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding; Key Laboratory of Animal (Poultry) Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Guiping Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding; Key Laboratory of Animal (Poultry) Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Ranran Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding; State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding; Key Laboratory of Animal (Poultry) Genetics Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture; Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
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Oyogoa E, Sonpatki M, Brinkerhoff BT, Andeen N, Meyer H, Ryan C, Sokolova AO. Mixed Adenosquamous Cell Carcinoma of the Prostate with Paired Sequencing on the Primary and Liver Metastasis. Curr Oncol 2024; 31:2393-2399. [PMID: 38785459 PMCID: PMC11119923 DOI: 10.3390/curroncol31050178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
This report aims to shed light on the intricate challenges encountered during the diagnosis and treatment of an uncommon variant of prostate cancer-mixed adenosquamous cell carcinoma of the prostate. Prostate cancers of this nature pose distinctive diagnostic and therapeutic dilemmas due to their rarity and complex histological composition. We present a case of a 63-year-old man with metastatic prostate cancer, featuring adenocarcinoma with squamous cell differentiation, who underwent a multimodal treatment approach. The patient responded to first-line carboplatin, docetaxel, and androgen deprivation therapy, followed by androgen receptor pathway inhibitor (ARPI) maintenance. However, disease progression led to radiation therapy and a subsequent switch to Lutetium (177Lu) vipivotide tetraxetan after chemotherapy challenges. Comprehensive genetic profiling revealed shared mutations in the prostate and liver lesions, emphasizing the role of targeted therapies. Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeted therapy resulted in a notable PSA decline. This case highlights the evolving treatment landscape for rare prostate cancers, integrating genetic insights for tailored interventions. In conclusion, squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the prostate is rare, emphasizing the imperative for enhanced comprehension in diagnosis and management. Our case suggests the potential efficacy of ARPI and PSMA-targeted therapies. Our findings advocate for a more nuanced approach to the management of this rare prostate cancer variant, leveraging genomic insights for personalized treatment strategies. This exploration serves as a foundation for further research and clinical considerations in addressing the challenges posed by mixed adenosquamous cell carcinoma of the prostate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuella Oyogoa
- Department of Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Maya Sonpatki
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Brian T. Brinkerhoff
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Nicole Andeen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Haley Meyer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55902, USA
| | - Christopher Ryan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Alexandra O. Sokolova
- Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Sciences University, Portland, OR 97239, USA
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Guzman J, Weigelt K, Neumann A, Tripal P, Schmid B, Winter Z, Palmisano R, Culig Z, Cronauer MV, Muschler P, Wullich B, Taubert H, Wach S. NanoLuc Binary Technology as a methodological approach: an important new tool for studying the localization of androgen receptor and androgen receptor splice variant V7 homo and heterodimers. BMC Cancer 2024; 24:346. [PMID: 38500100 PMCID: PMC10949640 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-024-12110-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The androgen/androgen receptor (AR)-signaling axis plays a central role in prostate cancer (PCa). Upon androgen-binding the AR dimerizes with another AR, and translocates into the nucleus where the AR-dimer activates/inactivates androgen-dependent genes. Consequently, treatments for PCa are commonly based on androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). The clinical benefits of ADT are only transitory and most tumors develop mechanisms allowing the AR to bypass its need for physiological levels of circulating androgens. Clinical failure of ADT is often characterized by the synthesis of a constitutively active AR splice variant, termed AR-V7. AR-V7 mRNA expression is considered as a resistance mechanism following ADT. AR-V7 no longer needs androgenic stimuli for nuclear entry and/or dimerization. METHODS Our goal was to mechanistically decipher the interaction between full-length AR (AR-FL) and AR-V7 in AR-null HEK-293 cells using the NanoLuc Binary Technology under androgen stimulation and deprivation conditions. RESULTS Our data point toward a hypothesis that AR-FL/AR-FL homodimers form in the cytoplasm, whereas AR-V7/AR-V7 homodimers localize in the nucleus. However, after androgen stimulation, all the AR-FL/AR-FL, AR-FL/AR-V7 and AR-V7/AR-V7 dimers were localized in the nucleus. CONCLUSIONS We showed that AR-FL and AR-V7 form heterodimers that localize to the nucleus, whereas AR-V7/AR-V7 dimers were found to localize in the absence of androgens in the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Guzman
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Uniklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN (CCC ER-EMN), Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Katrin Weigelt
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Uniklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN (CCC ER-EMN), Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Angela Neumann
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Uniklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN (CCC ER-EMN), Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Philipp Tripal
- Optical Imaging Centre Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Benjamin Schmid
- Optical Imaging Centre Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Zoltán Winter
- Optical Imaging Centre Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Ralph Palmisano
- Optical Imaging Centre Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Zoran Culig
- Department of Urology, Division of Experimental Urology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 6020, Austria
| | - Marcus V Cronauer
- Institute of Pathology, Universitätsklinikum Bonn, Universität Bonn, Bonn, 53127, Germany
| | | | - Bernd Wullich
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Uniklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN (CCC ER-EMN), Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Helge Taubert
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Uniklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany.
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN (CCC ER-EMN), Erlangen, 91054, Germany.
| | - Sven Wach
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, Uniklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN (CCC ER-EMN), Erlangen, 91054, Germany
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Chang KS, Chen ST, Sung HC, Hsu SY, Lin WY, Hou CP, Lin YH, Feng TH, Tsui KH, Juang HH. Androgen Receptor Upregulates Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue 1 to Induce NF-κB Activity via Androgen-Dependent and -Independent Pathways in Prostate Carcinoma Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076245. [PMID: 37047218 PMCID: PMC10093854 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The androgen-dependent or -independent pathways are regarded as primary therapeutic targets for the neoplasm of the prostate. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue 1 (MALT1) acting as a paracaspase in the regulation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signal transduction plays a central role in inflammation and oncogenesis in cancers. This study confirmed the potential linkages between androgen and NF-κB activation by inducing MALT1 in the androgen receptor-full length (ARFL)-positive LNCaP and 22Rv1 prostate cancer cells. Although androgen did not stimulate MALT1 expression in AR-null or ectopic ARFL-overexpressed PC-3 cells, the ectopic overexpression of the AR splicing variant 7 (ARv7) upregulated MALT1 to activate NF-κB activities in 22Rv1 and PC-3 cells. Since the nuclear translocation of p50 and p65 was facilitated by ARv7 to motivate NF-κB activity, the expressions of MALT1, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and N-myc downstream regulated 1 (NDRG1) were therefore induced in ectopic ARv7-overexpressed prostate cancer cells. Ectopic ARv7 overexpression not only enhanced 22Rv1 or PC-3 cell growth and invasion in vitro but also the tumor growth of PC-3 cells in vivo. These results indicate that an androgen receptor induces MALT1 expression androgen-dependently and -independently in ARFL- or ARv7-overexpressed prostate cancer cells, suggesting a novel ARv7/MALT1/NF-κB-signaling pathway may exist in the cells of prostate cancer.
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Solomon CU, McVey DG, Andreadi C, Gong P, Turner L, Stanczyk PJ, Khemiri S, Chamberlain JC, Yang W, Webb TR, Nelson CP, Samani NJ, Ye S. Effects of Coronary Artery Disease-Associated Variants on Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells. Circulation 2022; 146:917-929. [PMID: 35735005 PMCID: PMC9484647 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.121.058389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genome-wide association studies have identified many genetic loci that are robustly associated with coronary artery disease (CAD). However, the underlying biological mechanisms are still unknown for most of these loci, hindering the progress to medical translation. Evidence suggests that the genetic influence on CAD susceptibility may act partly through vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). METHODS We undertook genotyping, RNA sequencing, and cell behavior assays on a large bank of VSMCs (n>1499). Expression quantitative trait locus and splicing quantitative trait locus analyses were performed to identify genes with an expression that was influenced by CAD-associated variants. To identify candidate causal genes for CAD, we ascertained colocalizations of VSMC expression quantitative trait locus signals with CAD association signals by performing causal variants identification in associated regions analysis and the summary data-based mendelian randomization test. Druggability analysis was then performed on the candidate causal genes. CAD risk variants were tested for associations with VSMC proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. Collective effects of multiple CAD-associated variants on VSMC behavior were estimated by polygenic scores. RESULTS Approximately 60% of the known CAD-associated variants showed statistically significant expression quantitative trait locus or splicing quantitative trait locus effects in VSMCs. Colocalization analyses identified 84 genes with expression quantitative trait locus signals that significantly colocalized with CAD association signals, identifying them as candidate causal genes. Druggability analysis indicated that 38 of the candidate causal genes were druggable, and 13 had evidence of drug-gene interactions. Of the CAD-associated variants tested, 139 showed suggestive associations with VSMC proliferation, migration, or apoptosis. A polygenic score model explained up to 5.94% of variation in several VSMC behavior parameters, consistent with polygenic influences on VSMC behavior. CONCLUSIONS This comprehensive analysis shows that a large percentage of CAD loci can modulate gene expression in VSMCs and influence VSMC behavior. Several candidate causal genes identified are likely to be druggable and thus represent potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles U. Solomon
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - David G. McVey
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Catherine Andreadi
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Peng Gong
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Lenka Turner
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Paulina J. Stanczyk
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Sonja Khemiri
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Julie C. Chamberlain
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Wei Yang
- Shantou University Medical College, China (W.Y., S.Y.)
| | - Tom R. Webb
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Christopher P. Nelson
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Nilesh J. Samani
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
| | - Shu Ye
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, and National Institute for Health Research Leicester Biomedical Research Centre, UK (C.U.S., D.G.M., C.A., P.G., L.T., P.J.S., S.K., J.C.C., T.R.W., C.P.N., J.N.S., S.Y.)
- Shantou University Medical College, China (W.Y., S.Y.)
- Cardiovascular Disease Translational Research Programme, Department of Medicine, National University of Singapore (S.Y.)
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Bai B, Chen Q, Jing R, He X, Wang H, Ban Y, Ye Q, Xu W, Zheng C. Molecular Basis of Prostate Cancer and Natural Products as Potential Chemotherapeutic and Chemopreventive Agents. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:738235. [PMID: 34630112 PMCID: PMC8495205 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.738235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the second most common malignant cancer in males. It involves a complex process driven by diverse molecular pathways that closely related to the survival, apoptosis, metabolic and metastatic characteristics of aggressive cancer. Prostate cancer can be categorized into androgen dependent prostate cancer and castration-resistant prostate cancer and cure remains elusive due to the developed resistance of the disease. Natural compounds represent an extraordinary resource of structural scaffolds with high diversity that can offer promising chemical agents for making prostate cancer less devastating and curable. Herein, those natural compounds of different origins and structures with potential cytotoxicity and/or in vivo anti-tumor activities against prostate cancer are critically reviewed and summarized according to the cellular signaling pathways they interfere. Moreover, the anti-prostate cancer efficacy of many nutrients, medicinal plant extracts and Chinese medical formulations were presented, and the future prospects for the application of these compounds and extracts were discussed. Although the failure of conventional chemotherapy as well as involved serious side effects makes natural products ideal candidates for the treatment of prostate cancer, more investigations of preclinical and even clinical studies are necessary to make use of these medical substances reasonably. Therefore, the elucidation of structure-activity relationship and precise mechanism of action, identification of novel potential molecular targets, and optimization of drug combination are essential in natural medicine research and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingke Bai
- Department of Chinese Medicine Authentication, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qianbo Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Rui Jing
- Department of Chinese Medicine Authentication, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuhui He
- Department of Chinese Medicine Authentication, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongrui Wang
- Department of Chinese Medicine Authentication, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanfei Ban
- Department of Chinese Medicine Authentication, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qi Ye
- Department of Biological Science, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Weiheng Xu
- Department of Biochemical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chengjian Zheng
- Department of Chinese Medicine Authentication, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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8
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Attwood MM, Schiöth HB. Characterization of Five Transmembrane Proteins: With Focus on the Tweety, Sideroflexin, and YIP1 Domain Families. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:708754. [PMID: 34350187 PMCID: PMC8327215 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.708754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmembrane proteins are involved in many essential cell processes such as signal transduction, transport, and protein trafficking, and hence many are implicated in different disease pathways. Further, as the structure and function of proteins are correlated, investigating a group of proteins with the same tertiary structure, i.e., the same number of transmembrane regions, may give understanding about their functional roles and potential as therapeutic targets. This analysis investigates the previously unstudied group of proteins with five transmembrane-spanning regions (5TM). More than half of the 58 proteins identified with the 5TM architecture belong to 12 families with two or more members. Interestingly, more than half the proteins in the dataset function in localization activities through movement or tethering of cell components and more than one-third are involved in transport activities, particularly in the mitochondria. Surprisingly, no receptor activity was identified within this dataset in large contrast with other TM groups. The three major 5TM families, which comprise nearly 30% of the dataset, include the tweety family, the sideroflexin family and the Yip1 domain (YIPF) family. We also analyzed the evolutionary origin of these three families. The YIPF family appears to be the most ancient with presence in bacteria and archaea, while the tweety and sideroflexin families are first found in eukaryotes. We found no evidence of common decent for these three families. About 30% of the 5TM proteins have prominent expression in the brain, liver, or testis. Importantly, 60% of these proteins are identified as cancer prognostic markers, where they are associated with clinical outcomes of various tumor types. Nearly 10% of the 5TMs are still not fully characterized and further investigation of their functional activities and expression is warranted. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of proteins with the 5TM architecture, providing details of their unique characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misty M Attwood
- Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Helgi B Schiöth
- Functional Pharmacology, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Institute for Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
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9
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Ylitalo EB, Thysell E, Landfors M, Brattsand M, Jernberg E, Crnalic S, Widmark A, Hultdin M, Bergh A, Degerman S, Wikström P. A novel DNA methylation signature is associated with androgen receptor activity and patient prognosis in bone metastatic prostate cancer. Clin Epigenetics 2021; 13:133. [PMID: 34193246 PMCID: PMC8244194 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-021-01119-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with metastatic prostate cancer (PC) are treated with androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) that initially reduces metastasis growth, but after some time lethal castration-resistant PC (CRPC) develops. A better understanding of the tumor biology in bone metastases is needed to guide further treatment developments. Subgroups of PC bone metastases based on transcriptome profiling have been previously identified by our research team, and specifically, heterogeneities related to androgen receptor (AR) activity have been described. Epigenetic alterations during PC progression remain elusive and this study aims to explore promoter gene methylation signatures in relation to gene expression and tumor AR activity. MATERIALS AND METHODS Genome-wide promoter-associated CpG methylation signatures of a total of 94 tumor samples, including paired non-malignant and malignant primary tumor areas originating from radical prostatectomy samples (n = 12), and bone metastasis samples of separate patients with hormone-naive (n = 14), short-term castrated (n = 4) or CRPC (n = 52) disease were analyzed using the Infinium Methylation EPIC arrays, along with gene expression analysis by Illumina Bead Chip arrays (n = 90). AR activity was defined from expression levels of genes associated with canonical AR activity. RESULTS Integrated epigenome and transcriptome analysis identified pronounced hypermethylation in malignant compared to non-malignant areas of localized prostate tumors. Metastases showed an overall hypomethylation in relation to primary PC, including CpGs in the AR promoter accompanied with induction of AR mRNA levels. We identified a Methylation Classifier for Androgen receptor activity (MCA) signature, which separated metastases into two clusters (MCA positive/negative) related to tumor characteristics and patient prognosis. The MCA positive metastases showed low methylation levels of genes associated with canonical AR signaling and patients had a more favorable prognosis after ADT. In contrast, MCA negative patients had low AR activity associated with hypermethylation of AR-associated genes, and a worse prognosis after ADT. CONCLUSIONS A promoter methylation signature classifies PC bone metastases into two groups and predicts tumor AR activity and patient prognosis after ADT. The explanation for the methylation diversities observed during PC progression and their biological and clinical relevance need further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elin Thysell
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Mattias Landfors
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Maria Brattsand
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Emma Jernberg
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sead Crnalic
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Orthopedics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anders Widmark
- Department of Radiation Sciences, Oncology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Magnus Hultdin
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anders Bergh
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sofie Degerman
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Pernilla Wikström
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
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10
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Altschuler J, Stockert JA, Kyprianou N. Non-Coding RNAs Set a New Phenotypic Frontier in Prostate Cancer Metastasis and Resistance. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22042100. [PMID: 33672595 PMCID: PMC7924036 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22042100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PCa) mortality remains a significant public health problem, as advanced disease has poor survivability due to the development of resistance in response to both standard and novel therapeutic interventions. Therapeutic resistance is a multifaceted problem involving the interplay of a number of biological mechanisms including genetic, signaling, and phenotypic alterations, compounded by the contributions of a tumor microenvironment that supports tumor growth, invasiveness, and metastasis. The androgen receptor (AR) is a primary regulator of prostate cell growth, response and maintenance, and the target of most standard PCa therapies designed to inhibit AR from interacting with androgens, its native ligands. As such, AR remains the main driver of therapeutic response in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). While androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), in combination with microtubule-targeting taxane chemotherapy, offers survival benefits in patients with mCRPC, therapeutic resistance invariably develops, leading to lethal disease. Understanding the mechanisms underlying resistance is critical to improving therapeutic outcomes and also to the development of biomarker signatures of predictive value. The interconversions between epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET) navigate the prostate tumor therapeutic response, and provide a novel targeting platform in overcoming therapeutic resistance. Both microRNA (miRNA)- and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA)-mediated mechanisms have been associated with epigenetic changes in prostate cancer. This review discusses the current evidence-based knowledge of the role of the phenotypic transitions and novel molecular determinants (non-coding RNAs) as contributors to the emergence of therapeutic resistance and metastasis and their integrated predictive value in prostate cancer progression to advanced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Altschuler
- Department of Urology, The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (J.A.); (J.A.S.)
| | - Jennifer A. Stockert
- Department of Urology, The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (J.A.); (J.A.S.)
| | - Natasha Kyprianou
- Department of Urology, The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; (J.A.); (J.A.S.)
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
- Correspondence:
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11
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Yu Z, Zou H, Wang H, Li Q, Yu D. Identification of Key Gene Signatures Associated With Bone Metastasis in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer Using Co-Expression Analysis. Front Oncol 2021; 10:571524. [PMID: 33604283 PMCID: PMC7884857 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.571524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
About 80–90% of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) patients would develop bone metastasis. However, the molecular mechanisms of bone metastasis are still not clear. This study aimed to detect the differences between the tumor and normal samples in bone after metastatic colonization. Four transcriptional datasets (GSE32269, GSE101607, GSE29650, and GSE74685) were obtained from the GEO database. 1983 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were first identified between tumor and normal marrow samples in GSE32269. Most of the top 10 up-regulated DEGs are related with prostate cancer, and the top 10 down-regulated DEGs are mainly related with bone development. Seven co-expression modules were then detected based on the 1469 DEGs shared by the four datasets. Three of them were found highly preserved among the four datasets. Enrichment analysis showed that the three modules were respectively enriched in Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), Leukocyte transendothelial migration and cell cycle, which might play significantly important roles in the tumor development in bone marrow. Ten, 17, and 99 hub genes for each module were then identified. And four genes (C3AR1, IL10RA, LY86, and MS4A6A) were detect to be tightly related to progression of bone metastatic CRPC. ROC curve was plotted and AUC was calculated to distinguish tumor and normal bone marrow samples as well as bone and non-bone metastatic CRPCs. The present study identified key genes and modules involved in bone metastatic CRPCs, which may provide new insights and biomarkers for understanding of the molecular mechanisms of bone metastatic CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongxiang Yu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hanlin Zou
- Department of Orthopedics, Putuo Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Huihao Wang
- Shi's Center of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Oncology, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Dong Yu
- Center for Translational Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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12
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Tolmeijer SH, Boerrigter E, Schalken JA, Geerlings MJ, van Oort IM, van Erp NP, Gerritsen WR, Ligtenberg MJ, Mehra N. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Predictive Value of Cell-Free DNA–Based Androgen Receptor Copy Number Gain in Patients With Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer. JCO Precis Oncol 2020; 4:714-729. [DOI: 10.1200/po.20.00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE It has been suggested that androgen receptor copy number gain ( AR gain) detected in cell-free DNA (cfDNA) can predict treatment response to androgen receptor signaling inhibitors (ARSIs) in patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). But it is unclear whether cfDNA-based AR gain is a true resistance mechanism to ARSIs or mainly a reflection of the tumor burden. In this systematic review, we aim to summarize current literature and comment on the potential of cfDNA-based AR gain as a predictive biomarker to guide therapy choices. METHODS A literature search was conducted in PubMed/Medline, Cochrane, Embase, and Web of Science databases. Sixteen articles published before November 2019 were selected for the meta-analysis, representing more than 1,000 patients. By using a random effects model, the progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were compared between patients with and without cfDNA-based AR gain who had been treated with ARSIs or with taxane chemotherapy. RESULTS Upon treatment with ARSIs, the PFS (hazard ratio [HR], 2.33; 95% CI, 2.00 to 2.72; P < .0001) and the OS (HR, 3.83; 95% CI, 3.11 to 4.70; P < .0001) were worse for patients with cfDNA-based AR gain, independent of the line and type of ARSIs. The OS and PFS in patients treated with first-line docetaxel or second-line or third-line cabazitaxel seemed to be unaffected by AR gain, despite a higher disease burden in patients with AR gain. AR gain was associated with reduced response with later lines of docetaxel. CONCLUSION In patients with CRPC, cfDNA-based AR gain is associated with a worse response to ARSIs. The effect on patients who are receiving taxane chemotherapy seems to be dependent on the type and line, although data are limited. Future prospective studies are essential to assess the true potential of cfDNA-based AR gain as a minimally invasive biomarker to guide therapy choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie H. Tolmeijer
- Department of Medical Oncology, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Emmy Boerrigter
- Department of Pharmacy, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jack A. Schalken
- Department of Urology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Maartje J. Geerlings
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Inge M. van Oort
- Department of Urology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Nielka P. van Erp
- Department of Pharmacy, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Winald R. Gerritsen
- Department of Medical Oncology, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marjolijn J.L. Ligtenberg
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Pathology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Niven Mehra
- Department of Medical Oncology, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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13
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Size-Exclusion Chromatography as a Technique for the Investigation of Novel Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12113156. [PMID: 33121160 PMCID: PMC7693800 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small particles that are released by cancer cells, and they may hold vital information for researchers looking for early markers for diagnosis. Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) is a classical technique that has become increasingly popular and can be used for rapid isolation and investigation of both their cargo and functionality. This systematic review highlights its main technical aspects, the type of materials involved and by covering the findings of the identified papers hopes to demonstrate the utility of this method in cancer research to date. Abstract Cancer cells release extracellular vesicles, which are a rich target for biomarker discovery and provide a promising mechanism for liquid biopsy. Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) is an increasingly popular technique, which has been rediscovered for the purposes of extracellular vesicle (EV) isolation and purification from diverse biofluids. A systematic review was undertaken to identify all papers that described size exclusion as their primary EV isolation method in cancer research. In all, 37 papers were identified and discussed, which showcases the breadth of applications in which EVs can be utilised, from proteomics, to RNA, and through to functionality. A range of different methods are highlighted, with Sepharose-based techniques predominating. EVs isolated using SEC are able to identify cancer cells, highlight active pathways in tumourigenesis, clinically distinguish cohorts, and remain functionally active for further experiments.
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14
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Taxane-based Chemotherapy Induced Androgen Receptor Splice Variant 7 in Patients with Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: A Tissue-based Analysis. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16794. [PMID: 31727962 PMCID: PMC6856155 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53280-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
In total, 95 prostate cancer (Pca) patients who underwent transurethral resection of the prostate from 2000 to 2013 were assigned to four groups: Group 1, hormone-naïve and T1a or T1b Pca (n = 17); Group 2, hormone-sensitive and metastatic Pca (n = 33); Group 3, chemo-naïve castration-resistant Pca (CRPC), (n = 18); and Group 4, CRPC with chemotherapy (n = 27). Full-length androgen receptor (ARfl) transcript levels significantly increased from Group 1 through to Group 3 (p = 0.045), but decreased from Group 3 through to Group 4. AR splice variant 7 (ARV7) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) transcript levels significantly increased from Group 1 through to Group 4 (p = 0.002 and 0.049, respectively). Kaplan-Meier curve revealed that the high transcript level of these three receptors resulted in significantly poorer cancer-specific survival (CSS) than that by low transcript level, although Cox regression analysis revealed that the ARV7 level alone was an independent prognostic factor for CSS in CRPC patients (high vs. low: hazard ratio, 1.897; 95% confidence interval, 1.102-3.625; p = 0.042). In conclusion, ARV7 and GR transcript levels significantly increase as Pca progresses to CRPC.
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15
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Del Re M, Crucitta S, Sbrana A, Rofi E, Paolieri F, Gianfilippo G, Galli L, Falcone A, Morganti R, Porta C, Efstathiou E, van Schaik R, Jenster G, Danesi R. Androgen receptor (AR) splice variant 7 and full-length AR expression is associated with clinical outcome: a translational study in patients with castrate-resistant prostate cancer. BJU Int 2019; 124:693-700. [PMID: 31055861 DOI: 10.1111/bju.14792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate if full-length androgen receptor (AR-FL) is associated with resistance to androgen receptor (AR)-directed therapy independently and/or combined with AR splice variant 7 (AR-V7). PATIENTS AND METHODS Plasma samples were prospectively collected from 73 patients with castrate-resistant prostate cancer before first- or second-line AR-directed therapy. mRNA was isolated from exosomes and AR-FL and AR-V7 were analysed by droplet digital PCR. RESULTS AR-FL was detected in all patients and 22% of them were AR-V7-positive at baseline. AR-FL expression was significantly higher in AR-V7-positive vs AR-V7-negative patients (P < 0.0001). After stratifying patients by tertile for AR-FL expression, progression-free survival (PFS) was 22 vs 18 vs 4 months for lower vs intermediate vs higher tertile, respectively (P = 0.0003). The median PFS and overall survival were significantly longer in AR-V7-negative vs AR-V7-positive patients (20 vs 4 months, P < 0.0001; not reached vs 9 months, P < 0.0001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS Resistance to AR-directed therapy was associated with the presence of AR-V7; however, AR-FL expression may help better refine response and survival of patients to AR-directed therapy. Both biomarkers, if validated in prospective trials, could be used to select the best treatment strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzia Del Re
- Unit of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Stefania Crucitta
- Unit of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Andrea Sbrana
- Medical Oncology Unit, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Eleonora Rofi
- Unit of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Federico Paolieri
- Medical Oncology Unit, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giulia Gianfilippo
- Unit of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Luca Galli
- Medical Oncology Unit, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Alfredo Falcone
- Medical Oncology Unit, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Riccardo Morganti
- Section of Statistics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Camillo Porta
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.,Division of Translational Oncology, I.R.C.C.S. Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri, Pavia, Italy
| | - Eleni Efstathiou
- Division of Cancer Medicine, Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Centre, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ron van Schaik
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Guido Jenster
- Department of Urology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Romano Danesi
- Unit of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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16
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Shaik S, Pandey H, Thirumalasetti SK, Nakamura N. Characteristics and Functions of the Yip1 Domain Family (YIPF), Multi-Span Transmembrane Proteins Mainly Localized to the Golgi Apparatus. Front Cell Dev Biol 2019; 7:130. [PMID: 31417902 PMCID: PMC6682643 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Yip1 domain family (YIPF) proteins are multi-span, transmembrane proteins mainly localized in the Golgi apparatus. YIPF proteins have been found in virtually all eukaryotes, suggesting that they have essential function(s). Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains four YIPFs: Yip1p, Yif1p, Yip4p, and Yip5p. Early analyses in S. cerevisiae indicated that Yip1p and Yif1p bind to each other and play a role in budding of transport vesicles and/or fusion of vesicles to target membranes. However, the molecular basis of their functions remains unclear. Analysis of YIPF proteins in mammalian cells has yielded significant clues about the function of these proteins. Human cells have nine family members that appear to have overlapping functions. These YIPF proteins are divided into two sub-families: YIPFα/Yip1p and YIPFβ/Yif1p. A YIPFα molecule forms a complex with a specific partner YIPFβ molecule. In the most broadly hypothesized scenario, a basic tetramer complex is formed from two molecules of each partner YIPF protein, and this tetramer forms a higher order oligomer. Three distinct YIPF protein complexes are formed from pairs of YIPFα and YIPFβ proteins. These are differently localized in either the early, middle, or late compartments of the Golgi apparatus and are recycled between adjacent compartments. Because a YIPF protein is predicted to have five transmembrane segments, a YIPF tetramer complex is predicted to have 20 transmembrane segments. This high number of transmembrane segments suggests that YIPF complexes function as channels, transporters, or transmembrane receptors. Here, the evidence from functional studies of YIPF proteins obtained during the last two decades is summarized and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaheena Shaik
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Himani Pandey
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Satish Kumar Thirumalasetti
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Biotechnology, Vignan's University, Guntur, India
| | - Nobuhiro Nakamura
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan.,Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kyoto, Japan
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17
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Thysell E, Vidman L, Ylitalo EB, Jernberg E, Crnalic S, Iglesias-Gato D, Flores-Morales A, Stattin P, Egevad L, Widmark A, Rydén P, Bergh A, Wikström P. Gene expression profiles define molecular subtypes of prostate cancer bone metastases with different outcomes and morphology traceable back to the primary tumor. Mol Oncol 2019; 13:1763-1777. [PMID: 31162796 PMCID: PMC6670017 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone metastasis is the lethal end-stage of prostate cancer (PC), but the biology of bone metastases is poorly understood. The overall aim of this study was therefore to explore molecular variability in PC bone metastases of potential importance for therapy. Specifically, genome-wide expression profiles of bone metastases from untreated patients (n = 12) and patients treated with androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT, n = 60) were analyzed in relation to patient outcome and to morphological characteristics in metastases and paired primary tumors. Principal component analysis and unsupervised classification were used to identify sample clusters based on mRNA profiles. Clusters were characterized by gene set enrichment analysis and related to histological and clinical parameters using univariate and multivariate statistics. Selected proteins were analyzed by immunohistochemistry in metastases and matched primary tumors (n = 52) and in transurethral resected prostate (TUR-P) tissue of a separate cohort (n = 59). Three molecular subtypes of bone metastases (MetA-C) characterized by differences in gene expression pattern, morphology, and clinical behavior were identified. MetA (71% of the cases) showed increased expression of androgen receptor-regulated genes, including prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and glandular structures indicating a luminal cell phenotype. MetB (17%) showed expression profiles related to cell cycle activity and DNA damage, and a pronounced cellular atypia. MetC (12%) exhibited enriched stroma-epithelial cell interactions. MetB patients had the lowest serum PSA levels and the poorest prognosis after ADT. Combined analysis of PSA and Ki67 immunoreactivity (proliferation) in bone metastases, paired primary tumors, and TUR-P samples was able to differentiate MetA-like (high PSA, low Ki67) from MetB-like (low PSA, high Ki67) tumors and demonstrate their different prognosis. In conclusion, bone metastases from PC patients are separated based on gene expression profiles into molecular subtypes with different morphology, biology, and clinical outcome. These findings deserve further exploration with the purpose of improving treatment of metastatic PC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elin Thysell
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Linda Vidman
- Department of Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics, Umeå University, Sweden
| | | | - Emma Jernberg
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Sead Crnalic
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Orthopaedics, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Diego Iglesias-Gato
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Amilcar Flores-Morales
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Pär Stattin
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Lars Egevad
- Department of Pathology and Cytology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anders Widmark
- Department of Radiation Sciences, Oncology, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Patrik Rydén
- Department of Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Anders Bergh
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Sweden
| | - Pernilla Wikström
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umeå University, Sweden
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18
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Chen W, Yao G, Zhou K. miR-103a-2-5p/miR-30c-1-3p inhibits the progression of prostate cancer resistance to androgen ablation therapy via targeting androgen receptor variant 7. J Cell Biochem 2019; 120:14055-14064. [PMID: 30963631 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.28680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Androgens and androgen receptors are vital factors involved in prostate cancer progression, and androgen ablation therapies are commonly used to treat advanced prostate cancer. However, the acquisition of androgen ablation therapy resistance remains a challenge. Recently, androgen receptor splicing variants lacking the ligand-binding domain have been reported to play a critical role in the acquisition of androgen ablation therapy resistance. In the present study, we revealed that the messenger RNA expression and the protein levels of an androgen receptor variant 7 (AR-V7) were higher in prostate cancer tissue samples and in the AR-positive prostate cancer cell line, VCaP. In contrast, microRNA (miR)-30c-1-3p/miR-103a-2-5p expression was significantly downregulated in tumor tissues and cells. miR-30c-1-3p/miR-103a-2-5p overexpression could inhibit AR-V7 expression, suppress VCaP cell growth, and inhibit AR-V7 downstream factor expression by directly targeting the 3'-untranslated region of AR-V7. Under enzalutamide (Enza) treatment, the effects of AR-V7 overexpression were the opposite of those of miR-103a-2-5p/miR-30c-1-3p overexpression; more importantly, the effects of miR-103a-2-5p/miR-30c-1-3p overexpression could be significantly reversed by AR-V7 overexpression under Enza. In summary, we demonstrated a novel mechanism of the miR-30c-1-3p/miR-103a-2-5p/AR-V7 axis modulating the cell proliferation of AR-positive prostate cancer cells via AR downstream targets. The clinical application of miR-30c-1-3p/miR-103a-2-5p needs further in vivo validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjie Chen
- Department of Urology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Gan Yao
- Department of Urology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Keqin Zhou
- Department of Urology, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Zhou J, Jenkins TG, Jung AM, Jeong KS, Zhai J, Jacobs ET, Griffin SC, Dearmon-Moore D, Littau SR, Peate WF, Ellis NA, Lance P, Chen Y, Burgess JL. DNA methylation among firefighters. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0214282. [PMID: 30913233 PMCID: PMC6435149 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Firefighters are exposed to carcinogens and have elevated cancer rates. We hypothesized that occupational exposures in firefighters would lead to DNA methylation changes associated with activation of cancer pathways and increased cancer risk. To address this hypothesis, we collected peripheral blood samples from 45 incumbent and 41 new recruit non-smoking male firefighters and analyzed the samples for DNA methylation using an Illumina Methylation EPIC 850k chip. Adjusting for age and ethnicity, we performed: 1) genome-wide differential methylation analysis; 2) genome-wide prediction for firefighter status (incumbent or new recruit) and years of service; and 3) Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). Four CpGs, including three in the YIPF6, MPST, and PCED1B genes, demonstrated above 1.5-fold statistically significant differential methylation after Bonferroni correction. Genome-wide methylation predicted with high accuracy incumbent and new recruit status as well as years of service among incumbent firefighters. Using IPA, the top pathways with more than 5 gene members annotated from differentially methylated probes included Sirtuin signaling pathway, p53 signaling, and 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling. These DNA methylation findings suggest potential cellular mechanisms associated with increased cancer risk in firefighters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Zhou
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Timothy G. Jenkins
- Department of Surgery, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Alesia M. Jung
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Kyoung Sook Jeong
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Jing Zhai
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth T. Jacobs
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Stephanie C. Griffin
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Devi Dearmon-Moore
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Sally R. Littau
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | | | - Nathan A. Ellis
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Peter Lance
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Yin Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Jefferey L. Burgess
- Department of Community, Environment and Policy, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
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Histone demethylase JMJD1A promotes alternative splicing of AR variant 7 (AR-V7) in prostate cancer cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:E4584-E4593. [PMID: 29712835 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1802415115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Formation of the androgen receptor splicing variant 7 (AR-V7) is one of the major mechanisms by which resistance of prostate cancer to androgen deprivation therapy occurs. The histone demethylase JMJD1A (Jumonji domain containing 1A) functions as a key coactivator for AR by epigenetic regulation of H3K9 methylation marks. Here, we describe a role for JMJD1A in AR-V7 expression. While JMJD1A knockdown had no effect on full-length AR (AR-FL), it reduced AR-V7 levels in prostate cancer cells. Reexpression of AR-V7 in the JMJD1A-knockdown cells elevated expression of select AR targets and partially rescued prostate cancer cell growth in vitro and in vivo. The AR-V7 protein level correlated positively with JMJD1A in a subset of human prostate cancer specimens. Mechanistically, we found that JMJD1A promoted alternative splicing of AR-V7 through heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein F (HNRNPF), a splicing factor known to regulate exon inclusion. Knockdown of JMJD1A or HNRNPF inhibited splicing of AR-V7, but not AR-FL, in a minigene reporter assay. JMJD1A was found to interact with and promote the recruitment of HNRNPF to a cryptic exon 3b on AR pre-mRNA for the generation of AR-V7. Taken together, the role of JMJD1A in AR-FL coactivation and AR-V7 alternative splicing highlights JMJD1A as a potentially promising target for prostate cancer therapy.
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Nordstrand A, Bovinder Ylitalo E, Thysell E, Jernberg E, Crnalic S, Widmark A, Bergh A, Lerner UH, Wikström P. Bone Cell Activity in Clinical Prostate Cancer Bone Metastasis and Its Inverse Relation to Tumor Cell Androgen Receptor Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19041223. [PMID: 29670000 PMCID: PMC5979457 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19041223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 04/14/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Advanced prostate cancer frequently metastasizes to bone and induces a mixed osteoblastic/osteolytic bone response. Standard treatment for metastatic prostate cancer is androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) that also affects bone biology. Treatment options for patients relapsing after ADT are limited, particularly in cases where castration-resistance does not depend on androgen receptor (AR) activity. Patients with non-AR driven metastases may, however, benefit from therapies targeting the tumor microenvironment. Therefore, the current study specifically investigated bone cell activity in clinical bone metastases in relation to tumor cell AR activity, in order to gain novel insight into biological heterogeneities of possible importance for patient stratification into bone-targeting therapies. Metastasis tissue obtained from treatment-naïve (n = 11) and castration-resistant (n = 28) patients was characterized using whole-genome expression analysis followed by multivariate modeling, functional enrichment analysis, and histological evaluation. Bone cell activity was analyzed by measuring expression levels of predefined marker genes representing osteoclasts (ACP5, CTSK, MMP9), osteoblasts (ALPL, BGLAP, RUNX2) and osteocytes (SOST). Principal component analysis indicated a positive correlation between osteoblast and osteoclast activity and a high variability in bone cell activity between different metastases. Immunohistochemistry verified a positive correlation between runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) positive osteoblasts and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP, encoded by ACP5) positive osteoclasts lining the metastatic bone surface. No difference in bone cell activity was seen between treatment-naïve and castration-resistant patients. Importantly, bone cell activity was inversely correlated to tumor cell AR activity (measured as AR, FOXA1, HOXB13, KLK2, KLK3, NKX3-1, STEAP2, and TMPRSS2 expression) and to patient serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels. Functional enrichment analysis indicated high bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling in metastases with high bone cell activity and low tumor cell AR activity. This was confirmed by BMP4 immunoreactivity in tumor cells of metastases with ongoing bone formation, as determined by histological evaluation of van Gieson-stained sections. In conclusion, the inverse relation observed between bone cell activity and tumor cell AR activity in prostate cancer bone metastasis may be of importance for patient response to AR and/or bone targeting therapies, but needs to be evaluated in clinical settings in relation to serum markers for bone remodeling, radiography and patient response to therapy. The importance of BMP signaling in the development of sclerotic metastasis lesions deserves further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Nordstrand
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umea University, 901 85 Umea, Sweden.
| | | | - Elin Thysell
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umea University, 901 85 Umea, Sweden.
| | - Emma Jernberg
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umea University, 901 85 Umea, Sweden.
| | - Sead Crnalic
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Orthopaedics, Umea University, 901 85 Umea, Sweden.
| | - Anders Widmark
- Department of Radiation Sciences, Oncology, Umea University, 901 87 Umea, Sweden.
| | - Anders Bergh
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umea University, 901 85 Umea, Sweden.
| | - Ulf H Lerner
- Department of Molecular Periodontology, Umea University, 901 87 Umea, Sweden.
- Centre for Bone and Arthritis Research, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition at Institute for Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, 413 45 Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Pernilla Wikström
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Pathology, Umea University, 901 85 Umea, Sweden.
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22
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Jernberg E, Bergh A, Wikström P. Clinical relevance of androgen receptor alterations in prostate cancer. Endocr Connect 2017; 6:R146-R161. [PMID: 29030409 PMCID: PMC5640574 DOI: 10.1530/ec-17-0118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer (PC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related deaths among men worldwide, despite continuously improved treatment strategies. Patients with metastatic disease are treated by androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) that with time results in the development of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) usually established as metastases within bone tissue. The androgen receptor (AR) transcription factor is the main driver of CRPC development and of acquired resistance to drugs given for treatment of CRPC, while a minority of patients have CRPC that is non-AR driven. Molecular mechanisms behind epithelial AR reactivation in CRPC include AR gene amplification and overexpression, AR mutations, expression of constitutively active AR variants, intra-tumoural and adrenal androgen synthesis and promiscuous AR activation by other factors. This review will summarize AR alterations of clinical relevance for patients with CRPC, with focus on constitutively active AR variants, their possible association with AR amplification and structural rearrangements as well as their ability to predict patient resistance to AR targeting drugs. The review will also discuss AR signalling in the tumour microenvironment and its possible relevance for metastatic growth and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Jernberg
- Department of Medical biosciencesUmeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anders Bergh
- Department of Medical biosciencesUmeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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