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Hajam IA, Katiki M, McNally R, Lázaro-Díez M, Kolar S, Chatterjee A, Gonzalez C, Paulchakrabarti M, Choudhury B, Caldera JR, Desmond T, Tsai CM, Du X, Li H, Murali R, Liu GY. Functional divergence of a bacterial enzyme promotes healthy or acneic skin. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8061. [PMID: 38052825 PMCID: PMC10697930 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43833-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Acne is a dermatologic disease with a strong pathologic association with human commensal Cutibacterium acnes. Conspicuously, certain C. acnes phylotypes are associated with acne, whereas others are associated with healthy skin. Here we investigate if the evolution of a C. acnes enzyme contributes to health or acne. Two hyaluronidase variants exclusively expressed by C. acnes strains, HylA and HylB, demonstrate remarkable clinical correlation with acne or health. We show that HylA is strongly pro-inflammatory, and HylB is modestly anti-inflammatory in a murine (female) acne model. Structural and phylogenic studies suggest that the enzymes evolved from a common hyaluronidase that acquired distinct enzymatic activity. Health-associated HylB degrades hyaluronic acid (HA) exclusively to HA disaccharides leading to reduced inflammation, whereas HylA generates large-sized HA fragments that drive robust TLR2-dependent pathology. Replacing an amino acid, Serine to Glycine near the HylA catalytic site enhances the enzymatic activity of HylA and produces an HA degradation pattern intermediate to HylA and HylB. Selective targeting of HylA using peptide vaccine or inhibitors alleviates acne pathology. We suggest that the functional divergence of HylA and HylB is a major driving force behind C. acnes health- and acne- phenotype and propose targeting of HylA as an approach for acne therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irshad A Hajam
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Madhusudhanarao Katiki
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Research Division of Immunology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA
| | - Randall McNally
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Research Division of Immunology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA
- Vault Pharma Inc., 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, 90025, USA
| | - María Lázaro-Díez
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
- AIDS Research Institute (IrsiCaixa). VIRus Immune Escape and VACcine Design (VIRIEVAC) Universitary Hospital German Trias i Pujol Crta Canyet s/n 08916, Badalona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Stacey Kolar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Research Division of Immunology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA
- Pharmacology at Armata Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Marina del Rey, CA, 90292, USA
| | - Avradip Chatterjee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Research Division of Immunology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA
| | - Cesia Gonzalez
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | | | - Biswa Choudhury
- GlycoAnalytics Core, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - J R Caldera
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Research Division of Immunology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, UCLA Health & David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Trieu Desmond
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
- School of Pharmacy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Chih-Ming Tsai
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Xin Du
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Huiying Li
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Ramachandran Murali
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Research Division of Immunology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, 90048, USA.
| | - George Y Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92093, USA.
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, CA, 92123, USA.
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Guvench O. Atomic-Resolution Experimental Structural Biology and Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Hyaluronan and Its Complexes. Molecules 2022; 27:7276. [PMID: 36364098 PMCID: PMC9658939 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27217276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2023] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes the atomic-resolution structural biology of hyaluronan and its complexes available in the Protein Data Bank, as well as published studies of atomic-resolution explicit-solvent molecular dynamics simulations on these and other hyaluronan and hyaluronan-containing systems. Advances in accurate molecular mechanics force fields, simulation methods and software, and computer hardware have supported a recent flourish in such simulations, such that the simulation publications now outnumber the structural biology publications by an order of magnitude. In addition to supplementing the experimental structural biology with computed dynamic and thermodynamic information, the molecular dynamics studies provide a wealth of atomic-resolution information on hyaluronan-containing systems for which there is no atomic-resolution structural biology either available or possible. Examples of these summarized in this review include hyaluronan pairing with other hyaluronan molecules and glycosaminoglycans, with ions, with proteins and peptides, with lipids, and with drugs and drug-like molecules. Despite limitations imposed by present-day computing resources on system size and simulation timescale, atomic-resolution explicit-solvent molecular dynamics simulations have been able to contribute significant insight into hyaluronan's flexibility and capacity for intra- and intermolecular non-covalent interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olgun Guvench
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Administration, School of Pharmacy, Westbrook College of Health Professions, University of New England, 716 Stevens Avenue, Portland, ME 04103, USA
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3
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A Bittersweet Computational Journey among Glycosaminoglycans. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11050739. [PMID: 34063530 PMCID: PMC8156566 DOI: 10.3390/biom11050739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are linear polysaccharides. In proteoglycans (PGs), they are attached to a core protein. GAGs and PGs can be found as free molecules, associated with the extracellular matrix or expressed on the cell membrane. They play a role in the regulation of a wide array of physiological and pathological processes by binding to different proteins, thus modulating their structure and function, and their concentration and availability in the microenvironment. Unfortunately, the enormous structural diversity of GAGs/PGs has hampered the development of dedicated analytical technologies and experimental models. Similarly, computational approaches (in particular, molecular modeling, docking and dynamics simulations) have not been fully exploited in glycobiology, despite their potential to demystify the complexity of GAGs/PGs at a structural and functional level. Here, we review the state-of-the art of computational approaches to studying GAGs/PGs with the aim of pointing out the “bitter” and “sweet” aspects of this field of research. Furthermore, we attempt to bridge the gap between bioinformatics and glycobiology, which have so far been kept apart by conceptual and technical differences. For this purpose, we provide computational scientists and glycobiologists with the fundamentals of these two fields of research, with the aim of creating opportunities for their combined exploitation, and thereby contributing to a substantial improvement in scientific knowledge.
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Hobbs JK, Pluvinage B, Boraston AB. Glycan-metabolizing enzymes in microbe-host interactions: the Streptococcus pneumoniae paradigm. FEBS Lett 2018; 592:3865-3897. [PMID: 29608212 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a frequent colonizer of the upper airways; however, it is also an accomplished pathogen capable of causing life-threatening diseases. To colonize and cause invasive disease, this bacterium relies on a complex array of factors to mediate the host-bacterium interaction. The respiratory tract is rich in functionally important glycoconjugates that display a vast range of glycans, and, thus, a key component of the pneumococcus-host interaction involves an arsenal of bacterial carbohydrate-active enzymes to depolymerize these glycans and carbohydrate transporters to import the products. Through the destruction of host glycans, the glycan-specific metabolic machinery deployed by S. pneumoniae plays a variety of roles in the host-pathogen interaction. Here, we review the processing and metabolism of the major host-derived glycans, including N- and O-linked glycans, Lewis and blood group antigens, proteoglycans, and glycogen, as well as some dietary glycans. We discuss the role of these metabolic pathways in the S. pneumoniae-host interaction, speculate on the potential of key enzymes within these pathways as therapeutic targets, and relate S. pneumoniae as a model system to glycan processing in other microbial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne K Hobbs
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Benjamin Pluvinage
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Alisdair B Boraston
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
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5
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Li F, Xu D. Functional role of R462 in the degradation of hyaluronan catalyzed by hyaluronate lyase from Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Mol Model 2015; 21:196. [PMID: 26169310 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-015-2724-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Hyaluronan lyase from Streptococcus pneumoniae can degrade hyaluronic acid, which is one of the major components in the extracellular matrix. Hyaluronan can regulate water balance, osmotic pressure, and act as an ion exchange resin. Followed by our recent work on the catalytic reaction mechanism and substrate binding mode, we in this work further investigate the functional role of active site arginine residue, R462, in the degradation of hyaluronan. The site directed mutagenesis simulation of R462A and R462Q were modeled using a combined quantum mechanical and molecular mechanical method. The overall substrate binding features upon mutations do not have significant changes. The energetic profiles for the reaction processes are essentially the same as that in wild type enzyme, but significant activation barrier height changes can be observed. Both mutants were shown to accelerate the overall enzymatic activity, e.g., R462A can reduce the barrier height by about 2.8 kcal mol(-1), while R462Q reduces the activation energy by about 2.9 kcal mol(-1). Consistent with the active site model calculated using density functional theory, our results can support that the positive charge on R462 guanidino side chain group plays a negative role in the catalysis. Finally, the functional role of R462 was proposed to facilitate the formation of initial enzyme-substrate complex, but not in the subsequent catalytic degradation reaction. Graphical Abstract Degradation of hyaluronan catalyzed by hyaluronate lyase from Streptococcus pneumoniae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengxue Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, People's Republic of China
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6
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Mercadante D, Melton LD, Jameson GB, Williams MAK, De Simone A. Substrate dynamics in enzyme action: rotations of monosaccharide subunits in the binding groove are essential for pectin methylesterase processivity. Biophys J 2013; 104:1731-9. [PMID: 23601320 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2013.02.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Revised: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The dynamical behavior of biomacromolecules is a fundamental property regulating a large number of biological processes. Protein dynamics have been widely shown to play a role in enzyme catalysis; however, the interplay between substrate dynamics and enzymatic activity is less understood. We report insights into the role of dynamics of substrates in the enzymatic activity of PME from Erwinia chrysanthemi, a processive enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of methylester groups from the galacturonic acid residues of homogalacturonan chains, the major component of pectin. Extensive molecular dynamics simulations of this PME in complex with decameric homogalacturonan chains possessing different degrees and patterns of methylesterification show how the carbohydrate substitution pattern governs the dynamics of the substrate in the enzyme's binding cleft, such that substrate dynamics represent a key prerequisite for the PME biological activity. The analyses reveal that correlated rotations around glycosidic bonds of monosaccharide subunits at and immediately adjacent to the active site are a necessary step to ensure substrate processing. Moreover, only substrates with the optimal methylesterification pattern attain the correct dynamical behavior to facilitate processive catalysis. This investigation is one of the few reported examples of a process where the dynamics of a substrate are vitally important.
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7
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Kawaguchi Y, Sugiura N, Kimata K, Kimura M, Kakuta Y. The crystal structure of novel chondroitin lyase ODV-E66, a baculovirus envelope protein. FEBS Lett 2013; 587:S0014-5793(13)00778-3. [PMID: 24512853 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2013.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Chondroitin lyases have been known as pathogenic bacterial enzymes that degrade chondroitin. Recently, baculovirus envelope protein ODV-E66 was identified as the first reported viral chondroitin lyase. ODV-E66 has low sequence identity with bacterial lyases at <12%, and unique characteristics reflecting the life cycle of baculovirus. To understand ODV-E66's structural basis, the crystal structure was determined and it was found that the structural fold resembled that of polysaccharide lyase 8 proteins and that the catalytic residues were also conserved. This structure enabled discussion of the unique substrate specificity and the stability of ODV-E66 as well as the host specificity of baculovirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshirou Kawaguchi
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Graduate School of System Life Sciences, Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan
| | - Nobuo Sugiura
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine, Aichi Medical University, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1195, Japan
| | - Koji Kimata
- Research Complex for the Medicine Frontiers, Aichi Medical University, 1-1 Yazakokarimata, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1195, Japan
| | - Makoto Kimura
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Graduate School of System Life Sciences, Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan; Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan
| | - Yoshimitu Kakuta
- Laboratory of Structural Biology, Graduate School of System Life Sciences, Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan; Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan.
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8
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Foley BL, Tessier MB, Woods RJ. Carbohydrate force fields. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COMPUTATIONAL MOLECULAR SCIENCE 2012; 2:652-697. [PMID: 25530813 PMCID: PMC4270206 DOI: 10.1002/wcms.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Carbohydrates present a special set of challenges to the generation of force fields. First, the tertiary structures of monosaccharides are complex merely by virtue of their exceptionally high number of chiral centers. In addition, their electronic characteristics lead to molecular geometries and electrostatic landscapes that can be challenging to predict and model. The monosaccharide units can also interconnect in many ways, resulting in a large number of possible oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, both linear and branched. These larger structures contain a number of rotatable bonds, meaning they potentially sample an enormous conformational space. This article briefly reviews the history of carbohydrate force fields, examining and comparing their challenges, forms, philosophies, and development strategies. Then it presents a survey of recent uses of these force fields, noting trends, strengths, deficiencies, and possible directions for future expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Lachele Foley
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Matthew B. Tessier
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Robert J. Woods
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- School of Chemistry, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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9
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Ling B, Sun M, Bi S, Jing Z, Liu Y. Molecular dynamics simulations of the coenzyme induced conformational changes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis L-alanine dehydrogenase. J Mol Graph Model 2012; 35:1-10. [PMID: 22459692 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2012.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 12/31/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis L-alanine dehydrogenase (L-MtAlaDH) catalyzes the NADH-dependent reversible oxidative deamination of L-alanine to pyruvate and ammonia. L-MtAlaDH has been proposed to be a potential target in the treatment of tuberculosis. Based on the crystal structures of this enzyme, molecular dynamics simulations were performed to investigate the conformational changes of L-MtAlaDH induced by coenzyme NADH. The results show that the presence of NADH in the binding domain restricts the motions and conformational distributions of L-MtAlaDH. There are two loops (residues 94-99 and 238-251) playing important roles for the binding of NADH, while another loop (residues 267-293) is responsible for the binding of substrate. The opening/closing and twisting motions of two domains are closely related to the conformational changes of L-MtAlaDH induced by NADH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoping Ling
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, Shandong 273165, China
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10
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Elmabrouk ZH, Vincent F, Zhang M, Smith NL, Turkenburg JP, Charnock SJ, Black GW, Taylor EJ. Crystal structures of a family 8 polysaccharide lyase reveal open and highly occluded substrate-binding cleft conformations. Proteins 2010; 79:965-74. [PMID: 21287626 DOI: 10.1002/prot.22938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2010] [Revised: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 10/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial enzymatic degradation of glycosaminoglycans such as hyaluronan and chondroitin is facilitated by polysaccharide lyases. Family 8 polysaccharide lyase (PL8) enzymes contain at least two domains: one predominantly composed of α-helices, the α-domain, and another predominantly composed of β-sheets, the β-domain. Simulation flexibility analyses indicate that processive exolytic cleavage of hyaluronan, by PL8 hyaluronate lyases, is likely to involve an interdomain shift, resulting in the opening/closing of the substrate-binding cleft between the α- and β-domains, facilitating substrate translocation. Here, the Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) PL8 enzyme was recombinantly expressed in and purified from Escherichia coli and biochemically characterized as a hyaluronate lyase. By using X-ray crystallography its structure was solved in complex with hyaluronan and chondroitin disaccharides. These findings show key catalytic interactions made by the different substrates, and on comparison with all other PL8 structures reveals that the substrate-binding cleft of the S. coelicolor enzyme is highly occluded. A third structure of the enzyme, harboring a mutation of the catalytic tyrosine, created via site-directed mutagenesis, interestingly revealed an interdomain shift that resulted in the opening of the substrate-binding cleft. These results add further support to the proposed processive mechanism of action of PL8 hyaluronate lyases and may indicate that the mechanism of action is likely to be universally used by PL8 hyaluronate lyases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zainab H Elmabrouk
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, United Kingdom
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Autore F, Pagano B, Fornili A, Rittinger K, Fraternali F. In silico phosphorylation of the autoinhibited form of p47(phox): insights into the mechanism of activation. Biophys J 2010; 99:3716-25. [PMID: 21112296 PMCID: PMC2998635 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2010.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2010] [Revised: 08/26/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of the multicomponent enzyme NADPH oxidase requires the interaction between the tandem SH3 domain of the cytosolic subunit p47(phox) and the cytoplasmic tail of membrane-bound p22(phox). In the resting state, p47(phox) exists in an autoinhibited conformation stabilized by intramolecular contacts between the SH3 domains and an adjacent polybasic region. Phosphorylation of three serine residues, Ser(303), Ser(304), and Ser(328) within this polybasic region has been shown to be sufficient for the disruption of the intramolecular interactions thereby inducing an active state of p47(phox). This active conformation is accessible to the cytoplasmic tail of p22(phox) and initiates the formation of the membrane-bound functional enzyme complex. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal insights in the mechanism of activation of the autoinhibited form of p47(phox) by in silico phosphorylation, of the three serine residues, Ser(303), Ser(304), and Ser(328). The simulations highlight the major collective coordinates generating the opening and the closing of the two SH3 domains and the residues that cause the unmasking of the p22(phox) binding site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Autore
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, School of Physical Sciences & Engineering, King's College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Pagano
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, School of Physical Sciences & Engineering, King's College, London, United Kingdom
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Università di Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
| | - Arianna Fornili
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, School of Physical Sciences & Engineering, King's College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Katrin Rittinger
- Division of Molecular Structure, MRC-National Institute for Medical Research, London, United Kingdom
| | - Franca Fraternali
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, School of Physical Sciences & Engineering, King's College, London, United Kingdom
- KCL Centre for Bioinformatics, School of Physical Sciences & Engineering, King's College, London, United Kingdom
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