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Liu J, Fischer A, Cserjan-Puschmann M, Lingg N, Oostenbrink C. Caspase-Based Fusion Protein Technology: Substrate Cleavability Described by Computational Modeling and Simulation. J Chem Inf Model 2024; 64:5691-5700. [PMID: 38946265 PMCID: PMC11267566 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.4c00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
The Caspase-based fusion protein technology (CASPON) allows for universal cleavage of fusion tags from proteins of interest to reconstitute the native N-terminus. While the CASPON enzyme has been optimized to be promiscuous against a diversity of N-terminal peptides, the cleavage efficacy for larger proteins can be surprisingly low. We develop an efficient means to rationalize and predict the cleavage efficiency based on a structural representation of the intrinsically disordered N-terminal peptides and their putative interactions with the CASPON enzyme. The number of favorably interacting N-terminal conformations shows a very good agreement with the experimentally observed cleavage efficiency, in agreement with a conformational selection model. The method relies on computationally cheap molecular dynamics simulations to efficiently generate a diverse collection of N-terminal conformations, followed by a simple fitting procedure into the CASPON enzyme. It can be readily used to assess the CASPON cleavability a priori.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Liu
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
- Institute
of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Fischer
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
- Department
of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Muthgasse
18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Monika Cserjan-Puschmann
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
- Department
of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Muthgasse
18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nico Lingg
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
- Department
of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna (BOKU), Muthgasse
18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Chris Oostenbrink
- Institute
of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
- Christian
Doppler Laboratory for Molecular Informatics in the Biosciences, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,
Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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Jakob LA, Mesurado T, Jungbauer A, Lingg N. Increase in cysteine-mediated multimerization under attractive protein-protein interactions. Prep Biochem Biotechnol 2022; 53:891-905. [PMID: 36576211 DOI: 10.1080/10826068.2022.2158471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The CASPON enzyme became an interesting enzyme for fusion protein processing because it generates an authentic N-terminus. However, the high cysteine content of the CASPON enzyme may induce aggregation via disulfide-bond formation, which can reduce enzymatic activity and be considered a critical quality attribute. Different multimerization states of the CASPON enzyme were isolated by preparative size exclusion chromatography and analyzed with respect to multimerization propensity and enzymatic activity. The impact of co-solutes on multimerization was studied in solution and in adsorbed state. Furthermore, protein-protein interactions in the presence of different co-solutes were measured by self-interaction chromatography and were then correlated to the multimerization propensity. The dimer was the most stable and active species with 50% higher enzymatic activity than the tetramer. Multimerization was mainly governed by a cysteine-mediated pathway, as indicated by DTT-induced reduction of most caspase multimers. In the presence of ammonium sulfate, attractive protein-protein interactions were consistent with those observed for higher multimerization when the cysteine-mediated pathway was followed. Multimerization was also observed under attractive conditions on a chromatographic stationary phase. These findings corroborate common rules to perform protein purification with low residence time to avoid disulfide bond formation and conformational change of the protein upon adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo A Jakob
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tomás Mesurado
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alois Jungbauer
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nico Lingg
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Bioprocess Science and Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
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3
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CASPON platform technology: Ultrafast circularly permuted caspase-2 cleaves tagged fusion proteins before all 20 natural amino acids at the N-terminus. N Biotechnol 2022; 71:37-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2022.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kröß C, Engele P, Sprenger B, Fischer A, Lingg N, Baier M, Öhlknecht C, Lier B, Oostenbrink C, Cserjan-Puschmann M, Striedner G, Jungbauer A, Schneider R. PROFICS: A bacterial selection system for directed evolution of proteases. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101095. [PMID: 34418435 PMCID: PMC8446807 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteases serve as important tools in biotechnology and as valuable drugs or drug targets. Efficient protein engineering methods to study and modulate protease properties are thus of great interest for a plethora of applications. We established PROFICS (PRotease Optimization via Fusion-Inhibited Carbamoyltransferase-based Selection), a bacterial selection system, which enables the optimization of proteases for biotechnology, therapeutics or diagnosis in a simple overnight process. During the PROFICS process, proteases are selected for their ability to specifically cut a tag from a reporter enzyme and leave a native N-terminus. Precise and efficient cleavage after the recognition sequence reverses the phenotype of an Escherichia coli knockout strain deficient in an essential enzyme of pyrimidine synthesis. A toolbox was generated to select for proteases with different preferences for P1' residues (the residue immediately following the cleavage site). The functionality of PROFICS is demonstrated with viral proteases and human caspase-2. PROFICS improved caspase-2 activity up to 25-fold after only one round of mutation and selection. Additionally, we found a significantly improved tolerance for all P1' residues caused by a mutation in a substrate interaction site. We showed that this improved activity enables cells containing the new variant to outgrow cells containing all other mutants, facilitating its straightforward selection. Apart from optimizing enzymatic activity and P1' tolerance, PROFICS can be used to reprogram specificities, erase off-target activity, optimize expression via tags/codon usage, or even to screen for potential drug-resistance-conferring mutations in therapeutic targets such as viral proteases in an unbiased manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Kröß
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Institute of Biochemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Petra Engele
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Institute of Biochemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bernhard Sprenger
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Institute of Biochemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Andreas Fischer
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nico Lingg
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Magdalena Baier
- Institute of Biochemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christoph Öhlknecht
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Institute of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Bettina Lier
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Institute of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Chris Oostenbrink
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Institute of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Monika Cserjan-Puschmann
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerald Striedner
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alois Jungbauer
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rainer Schneider
- acib GmbH, Graz, Austria; Institute of Biochemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Öhlknecht C, Katz S, Kröß C, Sprenger B, Engele P, Schneider R, Oostenbrink C. Efficient In Silico Saturation Mutagenesis of a Member of the Caspase Protease Family. J Chem Inf Model 2021; 61:1193-1203. [PMID: 33570387 PMCID: PMC8023567 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.0c01216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Rational-design methods have proven to be a valuable toolkit in the field of protein design. Numerical approaches such as free-energy calculations or QM/MM methods are fit to widen the understanding of a protein-sequence space but require large amounts of computational time and power. Here, we apply an efficient method for free-energy calculations that combines the one-step perturbation (OSP) with the third-power-fitting (TPF) approach. It is fit to calculate full free energies of binding from three different end states only. The nonpolar contribution to the free energies are calculated for a set of chosen amino acids from a single simulation of a judiciously chosen reference state. The electrostatic contributions, on the other hand, are predicted from simulations of the neutral and charged end states of the individual amino acids. We used this method to perform in silico saturation mutagenesis of two sites in human Caspase-2. We calculated relative binding free energies toward two different substrates that differ in their P1' site and in their affinity toward the unmutated protease. Although being approximate, our approach showed very good agreement upon validation against experimental data. 76% of the predicted relative free energies of amino acid mutations was found to be true positives or true negatives. We observed that this method is fit to discriminate amino acid mutations because the rate of false negatives is very low (<1.5%). The approach works better for a substrate with medium/low affinity with a Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) of 0.63, whereas for a substrate with very low affinity, the MCC was 0.38. In all cases, the combined TPF + OSP approach outperformed the linear interaction energy method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Öhlknecht
- Institute
of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna A-1190, Austria
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Petersgasse 14, Graz 8041, Austria
| | - Sonja Katz
- Institute
of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna A-1190, Austria
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Petersgasse 14, Graz 8041, Austria
| | - Christina Kröß
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Petersgasse 14, Graz 8041, Austria
- Institute
of Biochemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
| | - Bernhard Sprenger
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Petersgasse 14, Graz 8041, Austria
- Institute
of Biochemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
| | - Petra Engele
- Austrian
Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Petersgasse 14, Graz 8041, Austria
- Institute
of Biochemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
| | - Rainer Schneider
- Institute
of Biochemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck 6020, Austria
| | - Chris Oostenbrink
- Institute
of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna A-1190, Austria
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Cserjan-Puschmann M, Lingg N, Engele P, Kröß C, Loibl J, Fischer A, Bacher F, Frank AC, Öhlknecht C, Brocard C, Oostenbrink C, Berkemeyer M, Schneider R, Striedner G, Jungbauer A. Production of Circularly Permuted Caspase-2 for Affinity Fusion-Tag Removal: Cloning, Expression in Escherichia coli, Purification, and Characterization. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E1592. [PMID: 33255244 PMCID: PMC7760212 DOI: 10.3390/biom10121592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Caspase-2 is the most specific protease of all caspases and therefore highly suitable as tag removal enzyme creating an authentic N-terminus of overexpressed tagged proteins of interest. The wild type human caspase-2 is a dimer of heterodimers generated by autocatalytic processing which is required for its enzymatic activity. We designed a circularly permuted caspase-2 (cpCasp2) to overcome the drawback of complex recombinant expression, purification and activation, cpCasp2 was constitutively active and expressed as a single chain protein. A 22 amino acid solubility tag and an optimized fermentation strategy realized with a model-based control algorithm further improved expression in Escherichia coli and 5.3 g/L of cpCasp2 in soluble form were obtained. The generated protease cleaved peptide and protein substrates, regardless of N-terminal amino acid with high activity and specificity. Edman degradation confirmed the correct N-terminal amino acid after tag removal, using Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 L3 as model substrate. Moreover, the generated enzyme is highly stable at -20 °C for one year and can undergo 25 freeze/thaw cycles without loss of enzyme activity. The generated cpCasp2 possesses all biophysical and biochemical properties required for efficient and economic tag removal and is ready for a platform fusion protein process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Cserjan-Puschmann
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nico Lingg
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Petra Engele
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christina Kröß
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Julian Loibl
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
| | - Andreas Fischer
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
| | - Florian Bacher
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
| | - Anna-Carina Frank
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Öhlknecht
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Institute of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Cécile Brocard
- Biopharma Process Science Austria, Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, 1121 Vienna, Austria; (C.B.); (M.B.)
| | - Chris Oostenbrink
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Institute of Molecular Modeling and Simulation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Berkemeyer
- Biopharma Process Science Austria, Boehringer Ingelheim RCV GmbH & Co KG, Dr. Boehringer-Gasse 5-11, 1121 Vienna, Austria; (C.B.); (M.B.)
| | - Rainer Schneider
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Gerald Striedner
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Alois Jungbauer
- ACIB-Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria; (M.C.-P.); (P.E.); (C.K.); (J.L.); (A.F.); (F.B.); (A.-C.F.); (C.Ö.); (C.O.); (R.S.); (G.S.)
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
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7
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Öhlknecht C, Petrov D, Engele P, Kröß C, Sprenger B, Fischer A, Lingg N, Schneider R, Oostenbrink C. Enhancing the promiscuity of a member of the Caspase protease family by rational design. Proteins 2020; 88:1303-1318. [PMID: 32432825 PMCID: PMC7497161 DOI: 10.1002/prot.25950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The N-terminal cleavage of fusion tags to restore the native N-terminus of recombinant proteins is a challenging task and up to today, protocols need to be optimized for different proteins individually. Within this work, we present a novel protease that was designed in-silico to yield enhanced promiscuity toward different N-terminal amino acids. Two mutations in the active-site amino acids of human Caspase-2 were determined to increase the recognition of branched amino-acids, which show only poor binding capabilities in the unmutated protease. These mutations were determined by sequential and structural comparisons of Caspase-2 and Caspase-3 and their effect was additionally predicted using free-energy calculations. The two mutants proposed in the in-silico studies were expressed and in-vitro experiments confirmed the simulation results. Both mutants showed not only enhanced activities toward branched amino acids, but also smaller, unbranched amino acids. We believe that the created mutants constitute an important step toward generalized procedures to restore original N-termini of recombinant fusion proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Öhlknecht
- Institute of Molecular Modeling and SimulationUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyViennaAustria
| | - Drazen Petrov
- Institute of Molecular Modeling and SimulationUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
| | - Petra Engele
- Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences InnsbruckUniversity of InnsbruckInnsbruckAustria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyViennaAustria
| | - Christina Kröß
- Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences InnsbruckUniversity of InnsbruckInnsbruckAustria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyViennaAustria
| | - Bernhard Sprenger
- Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences InnsbruckUniversity of InnsbruckInnsbruckAustria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyViennaAustria
| | | | - Nico Lingg
- Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyViennaAustria
| | - Rainer Schneider
- Institute of Biochemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences InnsbruckUniversity of InnsbruckInnsbruckAustria
| | - Chris Oostenbrink
- Institute of Molecular Modeling and SimulationUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
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