Insights into the mechanisms of light-oxygen-voltage domain color tuning from a set of high-resolution X-ray structures

Capturing the blue-light activated state of the Phot-LOV1 domain from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii using time-resolved serial synchrotron crystallography

Light-oxygen-voltage (LOV) domains are small photosensory flavoprotein modules that allow the conversion of external stimuli (sunlight) into intracellular signals responsible for various cell behaviors (e.g. phototropism and chloroplast relocation). This ability relies on the light-induced formation of a covalent thioether adduct between a flavin chromophore and a reactive cysteine from the protein environment, which triggers a cascade of structural changes that result in the activation of a serine/threonine (Ser/Thr) kinase. Recent developments in time-resolved crystallography may allow the activation cascade of the LOV domain to be observed in real time, which has been elusive. In this study, we report a robust protocol for the production and stable delivery of microcrystals of the LOV domain of phototropin Phot-1 from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (CrPhotLOV1) with a high-viscosity injector for time-resolved serial synchrotron crystallography (TR-SSX). The detailed process covers all aspects, from sample optimization to data collection, which may serve as a guide for soluble protein preparation for TR-SSX. In addition, we show that the crystals obtained preserve the photoreactivity using infrared spectroscopy. Furthermore, the results of the TR-SSX experiment provide high-resolution insights into structural alterations of CrPhotLOV1 from Δt = 2.5 ms up to Δt = 95 ms post-photoactivation, including resolving the geometry of the thioether adduct and the C-terminal region implicated in the signal transduction process.

Two distinct mechanisms of flavoprotein spectral tuning revealed by low-temperature and time-dependent spectroscopy

Flavins such as flavin mononucleotide or flavin adenine dinucleotide are bound by diverse proteins, yet have very similar spectra when in the oxidized state. Recently, we developed new variants of flavin-binding protein CagFbFP exhibiting notable blue (Q148V) or red (I52V A85Q) shifts of fluorescence emission maxima. Here, we use time-resolved and low-temperature spectroscopy to show that whereas the chromophore environment is static in Q148V, an additional protein-flavin hydrogen bond is formed upon photoexcitation in the I52V A85Q variant. Consequently, in Q148V, excitation, emission, and phosphorescence spectra are shifted, whereas in I52V A85Q, excitation and low-temperature phosphorescence spectra are relatively unchanged, while emission spectrum is altered. We also determine the x-ray structures of the two variants to reveal the flavin environment and complement the spectroscopy data. Our findings illustrate two distinct color-tuning mechanisms of flavin-binding proteins and could be helpful for the engineering of new variants with improved optical properties.

Current Trends of Bacterial and Fungal Optoproteins for Novel Optical Applications

Photoproteins, luminescent proteins or optoproteins are a kind of light-response protein responsible for the conversion of light into biochemical energy that is used by some bacteria or fungi to regulate specific biological processes. Within these specific proteins, there are groups such as the photoreceptors that respond to a given light wavelength and generate reactions susceptible to being used for the development of high-novel applications, such as the optocontrol of metabolic pathways. Photoswitchable proteins play important roles during the development of new materials due to their capacity to change their conformational structure by providing/eliminating a specific light stimulus. Additionally, there are bioluminescent proteins that produce light during a heatless chemical reaction and are useful to be employed as biomarkers in several fields such as imaging, cell biology, disease tracking and pollutant detection. The classification of these optoproteins from bacteria and fungi as photoreceptors or photoresponse elements according to the excitation-emission spectrum (UV-Vis-IR), as well as their potential use in novel applications, is addressed in this article by providing a structured scheme for this broad area of knowledge.

Fine spectral tuning of a flavin-binding fluorescent protein for multicolor imaging

Flavin-binding fluorescent proteins are promising genetically encoded tags for microscopy. However, spectral properties of their chromophores (riboflavin, flavin mononucleotide, and flavin adenine dinucleotide) are notoriously similar even between different protein families, which limits applications of flavoproteins in multicolor imaging. Here, we present a palette of 22 finely tuned fluorescent tags based on the thermostable LOV domain from Chloroflexus aggregans. We performed site saturation mutagenesis of three amino acid positions in the flavin-binding pocket, including the photoactive cysteine, to obtain variants with fluorescence emission maxima uniformly covering the wavelength range from 486 to 512 nm. We demonstrate three-color imaging based on spectral separation and two-color fluorescence lifetime imaging of bacteria, as well as two-color imaging of mammalian cells (HEK293T), using the proteins from the palette. These results highlight the possibility of fine spectral tuning of flavoproteins and pave the way for further applications of flavin-binding fluorescent proteins in fluorescence microscopy.

Experimental Characterization of In Silico Red-Shift-Predicted iLOVL470T/Q489K and iLOVV392K/F410V/A426S Mutants

iLOV is a flavin mononucleotide-binding fluorescent protein used for in vivo cellular imaging similar to the green fluorescent protein. To expand the range of applications of iLOV, spectrally tuned red-shifted variants are desirable to reduce phototoxicity and allow for better tissue penetration. In this report, we experimentally tested two iLOV mutants, iLOV^L470T/Q489K and iLOV^{V392K/F410V/A426S}, which were previously computationally proposed by (KhrenovaJ. Phys. Chem. B2017, 121 ( (43), ), pp 10018-10025) to have red-shifted excitation and emission spectra. While iLOV^L470T/Q489K is about 20% brighter compared to the WT in vitro, it exhibits a blue shift in contrast to quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) predictions. Additional optical characterization of an iLOV^V392K mutant revealed that V392 is essential for cofactor binding and, accordingly, variants with V392K mutation are unable to bind to FMN. iLOV^L470T/Q489K and iLOV^{V392K/F410V/A426S} are expressed at low levels and have no detectable fluorescence in living cells, preventing their utilization in imaging applications.

Signal transduction in light-oxygen-voltage receptors lacking the active-site glutamine

In nature as in biotechnology, light-oxygen-voltage photoreceptors perceive blue light to elicit spatiotemporally defined cellular responses. Photon absorption drives thioadduct formation between a conserved cysteine and the flavin chromophore. An equally conserved, proximal glutamine processes the resultant flavin protonation into downstream hydrogen-bond rearrangements. Here, we report that this glutamine, long deemed essential, is generally dispensable. In its absence, several light-oxygen-voltage receptors invariably retained productive, if often attenuated, signaling responses. Structures of a light-oxygen-voltage paradigm at around 1 Å resolution revealed highly similar light-induced conformational changes, irrespective of whether the glutamine is present. Naturally occurring, glutamine-deficient light-oxygen-voltage receptors likely serve as bona fide photoreceptors, as we showcase for a diguanylate cyclase. We propose that without the glutamine, water molecules transiently approach the chromophore and thus propagate flavin protonation downstream. Signaling without glutamine appears intrinsic to light-oxygen-voltage receptors, which pertains to biotechnological applications and suggests evolutionary descendance from redox-active flavoproteins.

Light-oxygen-voltage (LOV) photoreceptors perceive blue light to elicit spatio-temporally defined cellular responses, and their signalling process has been extensively characterized. Here the authors report that the light signal is still transduced in the absence of a conserved Gln residue, thought to be key.

Extreme dependence of Chloroflexus aggregans LOV domain thermo- and photostability on the bound flavin species

Light-oxygen-voltage (LOV) domains are common photosensory modules that found many applications in fluorescence microscopy and optogenetics. Here, we show that the Chloroflexus aggregans LOV domain can bind different flavin species (lumichrome, LC; riboflavin, RF; flavin mononucleotide, FMN; flavin adenine dinucleotide, FAD) during heterologous expression and that its physicochemical properties depend strongly on the nature of the bound flavin. We show that whereas the dissociation constants for different chromophores are similar, the melting temperature of the protein reconstituted with single flavin species varies from ~ 60 °C for LC to ~ 81 °C for FMN, and photobleaching half-times vary almost 100-fold. These observations serve as a caution for future studies of LOV domains in non-native conditions yet raise the possibility of fine-tuning various properties of LOV-based fluorescent probes and optogenetic tools by manipulating the chromophore composition.

High-resolution structure of a naturally red-shifted LOV domain

LOV domains are widespread photosensory modules that have also found applications in fluorescence microscopy, optogenetics, and light-driven generation of reactive oxygen species. Many of these applications require stable proteins with altered spectra. Here, we report a flavin-based fluorescent protein CisFbFP derived from Chloroflexus islandicus LOV domain-containing protein. We show that CisFbFP is thermostable, and its absorption and fluorescence spectra are red-shifted for ∼6 nm, which has not been observed for other cysteine-substituted natural LOV domains. We also provide a crystallographic structure of CisFbFP at the resolution of 1.2 Å that reveals alterations in the active site due to replacement of conservative asparagine with a serine. Finally, we discuss the possible effects of presence of cis-proline in the Aβ-Bβ loop on the protein's structure and stability. The findings provide the basis for engineering and color tuning of LOV-based tools for molecular biology.

The molecular basis of spectral tuning in blue- and red-shifted flavin-binding fluorescent proteins

Photoactive biological systems modify the optical properties of their chromophores, known as spectral tuning. Determining the molecular origin of spectral tuning is instrumental for understanding the function and developing applications of these biomolecules. Spectral tuning in flavin-binding fluorescent proteins (FbFPs), an emerging class of fluorescent reporters, is limited by their dependency on protein-bound flavins, whose structure and hence electronic properties cannot be altered by mutation. A blue-shifted variant of the plant-derived improved light, oxygen, voltage FbFP has been created by introducing a lysine within the flavin-binding pocket, but the molecular basis of this shift remains unconfirmed. We here structurally characterize the blue-shifted improved light, oxygen, voltage variant and construct a new blue-shifted CagFbFP protein by introducing an analogous mutation. X-ray structures of both proteins reveal displacement of the lysine away from the chromophore and opening up of the structure as instrumental for the blue shift. Site saturation mutagenesis and high-throughput screening yielded a red-shifted variant, and structural analysis revealed that the lysine side chain of the blue-shifted variant is stabilized close to the flavin by a secondary mutation, accounting for the red shift. Thus, a single additional mutation in a blue-shifted variant is sufficient to generate a red-shifted FbFP. Using spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, and quantum mechanics molecular mechanics calculations, we provide a firm structural and functional understanding of spectral tuning in FbFPs. We also show that the identified blue- and red-shifted variants allow for two-color microscopy based on spectral separation. In summary, the generated blue- and red-shifted variants represent promising new tools for application in life sciences.