RNA interference of muscle actin and ATP synthase beta increases mortality of the phytoplasma vector Euscelidius variegatus

RNA interference protocols for gene silencing in the spittlebug Philaenus spumarius, vector of Xylella fastidiosa

RNA interference (RNAi) is double stranded RNA (dsRNA)-based gene silencing mechanism. Exogenous dsRNAs application to crops has raised as a powerful tool to control agricultural pests. In particular, several sap-feeder are important plant pathogens vectors, such as Philaenus spumarius, known as main vector of Xylella fastidiosa (Xf), causal agent of olive quick decline syndrome (OQDS) in southern Italy. Here, dsATP synthase beta (dsATP), dsLaccase (dsLacc) and dsGreen Fluorescent Protein (dsGFP) as control, were provided to spittlebug adults by microinjection or to nymphs fed on dsRNA-treated plant shoots. Treated insects were collected at different time points to monitor silencing efficiency over time, describing significant reduction of transcript levels from 8 to 24 days post treatment. Downregulation of target genes ranged from 2- to 16-fold compared to the corresponding dsGFP controls, where highest silencing effects were generally noticed for ATP synthase beta. Sequencing of libraries obtained from total smallRNA (sRNA) showed the generation of dsRNA-derived sRNAs by RNAi pathway, with majority of reads mapping exclusively on the correspondent dsRNA. Also, we characterized components of a functional RNAi machinery in P. spumarius. Further research is needed to clarify such mechanism, screen effective target lethal genes to reduce vector population and improve delivery strategies.

Development of an agroinfiltration-based transient hairpin RNA expression system in pak choi leaves (Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis) for RNA interference against Liriomyza sativae

The vegetable leafminer (Liriomyza sativae) is a devastating invasive pest of many vegetable crops and horticultural plants worldwide, causing serious economic loss. Conventional control strategy against this pest mainly relies on the synthetic chemical pesticides, but widespread use of insecticides easily causes insecticide resistance development and is harmful to beneficial organisms and environment. In this context, a more environmentally friendly pest management strategy based on RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a powerful tool to control of insect pests. Here we report a successful oral RNAi in L. sativae after feeding on pak choi (Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis) that transiently express hairpin RNAs targeting vital genes in this pest. First, potentially lethal genes are identified by searching an L. sativae transcriptome for orthologs of the widely used V-ATPase A and actin genes, then expression levels are assessed during different life stages and in different adult tissues. Interestingly, the highest expression levels for V-ATPase A are observed in the adult heads (males and females) and for actin in the abdomens of adult females. We also assessed expression patterns of the target hairpin RNAs in pak choi leaves and found that they reach peak levels 72 h post agroinfiltration. RNAi-mediated knockdown of each target was then assessed by letting adult L. sativae feed on agroinfiltrated pak choi leaves. Relative transcript levels of each target gene exhibit significant reductions over the feeding time, and adversely affect survival of adult L. sativae at 24 h post infestation in genetically unmodified pak choi plants. These results demonstrate that the agroinfiltration-mediated RNAi system has potential for advancing innovative environmentally safe pest management strategies for the control of leaf-mining species.

A knockdown gene approach identifies an insect vector membrane protein with leucin-rich repeats as one of the receptors for the VmpA adhesin of flavescence dorée phytoplasma

Introduction

The adhesion of flavescence dorée phytoplasma to the midgut epithelium cells of their insect vectors is partially mediated by the variable membrane protein A (VmpA), an adhesin which shows lectin properties. In order to identify the insect receptor for VmpA, we identified Euscelidius variegatus cell proteins interacting with recombinant VmpA-His6.

Methods

The E. variegatus proteins were identified by mass spectrometry analysis of VmpA-E. variegatus protein complexes formed upon in vitro interaction assays. To assess their impact in VmpA binding, we reduced the expression of the candidate genes on E. variegatus cells in culture by dsRNA-mediated RNAi. The effect of candidate gene knockdown on VmpA binding was measured by the capacity of E. variegatus cells to bind VmpA-coated fluorescent beads.

Results and discussion

There were 13 candidate proteins possessing potential N-glycosylation sites and predicted transmembrane domains selected. The decrease of expression of an unknown transmembrane protein with leucine-rich repeat domains (uk1_LRR) was correlated with the decreased adhesion of VmpA beads to E. variegatus cells. The uk1_LRR was more expressed in digestive tubes than salivary glands of E. variegatus. The protein uk1_LRR could be implicated in the binding with VmpA in the early stages of insect infection following phytoplasmas ingestion.

Flavescence dorée phytoplasma enters insect cells by a clathrin-mediated endocytosis allowing infection of its insect vector

To perform its propagative and circulative cycle into its insect vector, the flavescence dorée phytoplasma invades different cell types. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is used by a wide range of bacteria to infect eukaryote cells. Among the insect proteins interacting with the phytoplasma adhesin VmpA, we identified the adaptor protein complex AP-1 and AP-2 suggesting that phytoplasmas could enter the insect cells via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. By infection assays of insect cells in culture, we showed that phytoplasmas entry into Drosophila S2 cells was more efficient than infection of the Euva cell line developed from the insect vector Euscelidius variegatus. Chlorpromazine, cytochalasin D and knockdown of clathrin heavy chain (chc) gene expression using RNA interference inhibited entry of phytoplasmas into S2 cells. During invasion of S2 cells, phytoplasmas were observed very closed to recombinant GFP-labelled clathrin light chain. To verify the role of clathrin in the insect colonization by phytoplasmas, RNAi was performed via artificial feeding of chc dsRNA by the vector E. variegatus. This decreased the expression of chc gene in the midgut and heads of E. variegatus. The chc lower expression correlated to a decreased of midgut and salivary gland cells colonization after the insects had ingested phytoplasmas from infected plants. In conclusion, results indicate that clathrin is important for the FD phytoplasma to enter insect cells and colonize its insect vector.

Silencing of ATP Synthase β Impairs Egg Development in the Leafhopper Scaphoideus titanus, Vector of the Phytoplasma Associated with Grapevine Flavescence Dorée

Scaphoideus titanus (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) is the natural vector of Flavescence dorée phytoplasma, a quarantine pest of grapevine with severe impact on European viticulture. RNA interference (RNAi) machinery components are present in S. titanus transcriptome and injection of ATP synthase β dsRNAs into adults caused gene silencing, starting three days post injection (dpi) up to 20 dpi, leading to decrease cognate protein. Silencing of this gene in the closely related leafhopper Euscelidiusvariegatus previously showed female sterility and lack of mature eggs in ovaries. Here, alteration of developing egg morphology in S. titanus ovaries as well as overexpression of hexamerin transcript (amino acid storage protein) and cathepsin L protein (lysosome proteinase) were observed in dsATP-injected females. To evaluate RNAi-specificity, E.variegatus was used as dsRNA-receiving model-species. Different doses of two sets of dsRNA-constructs targeting distinct portions of ATP synthase β gene of both species induced silencing, lack of egg development, and female sterility in E. variegatus, indicating that off-target effects must be evaluated case by case. The effectiveness of RNAi in S. titanus provides a powerful tool for functional genomics of this non-model species and paves the way toward RNAi-based strategies to limit vector population, despite several technical and regulatory constraints that still need to be overcome to allow open field application.

Novel and emerging biotechnological crop protection approaches

Traditional breeding or genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have for a long time been the sole approaches to effectively cope with biotic and abiotic stresses and implement the quality traits of crops. However, emerging diseases as well as unpredictable climate changes affecting agriculture over the entire globe force scientists to find alternative solutions required to quickly overcome seasonal crises. In this review, we first focus on cisgenesis and genome editing as challenging biotechnological approaches for breeding crops more tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses. In addition, we take into consideration a toolbox of new techniques based on applications of RNA interference and epigenome modifications, which can be adopted for improving plant resilience. Recent advances in these biotechnological applications are mainly reported for non-model plants and woody crops in particular. Indeed, the characterization of RNAi machinery in plants is fundamental to transform available information into biologically or biotechnologically applicable knowledge. Finally, here we discuss how these innovative and environmentally friendly techniques combined with traditional breeding can sustain a modern agriculture and be of potential contribution to climate change mitigation.

Silencing of ATP synthase β reduces phytoplasma multiplication in a leafhopper vector

The leafhopper Euscelidius variegatus is a natural vector of the chrysanthemum yellows phytoplasma (CYp) and a laboratory vector of the Flavescence dorée phytoplasma (FDp). Previous studies indicated a crucial role for insect ATP synthase α and β subunits during phytoplasma infection of the vector species. Gene silencing of ATP synthase β was obtained by injection of specific dsRNAs in E. variegatus. Here we present the long-lasting nature of such silencing, its effects on the small RNA profile, the significant reduction of the corresponding protein expression, and the impact on phytoplasma acquisition capability. The specific transcript expression was silenced at least up to 37 days post injection with an average reduction of 100 times in insects injected with dsRNAs targeting ATP synthase β (dsATP) compared with those injected with dsRNAs targeting green fluorescent protein (dsGFP), used as negative controls. Specific silencing of this gene was also confirmed at protein level at 15 days after the injection. Total sRNA reads mapping to dsATP and dsGFP sequences in analysed libraries showed in both cases a peak of 21 nt, a length consistent with the generation of dsRNA-derived siRNAs by RNAi pathway. Reads mapped exclusively to the fragment corresponding to the injected dsATPs, probably indicating the absence of a secondary machinery for siRNA synthesis. Insects injected either with dsATP or dsGFP successfully acquired CYp and FDp during feeding on infected plants. However, the average phytoplasma amount in dsATP insects was significantly lower than that measured in dsGFP specimens, indicating a probable reduction of the pathogen multiplication when ATP synthase β was silenced. The role of the insect ATP synthase β during phytoplasma infection process is discussed.

Biological characterization of Euscelidius variegatus iflavirus 1

Virus-based biocontrol technologies represent sustainable alternatives to pesticides and insecticides. Phytoplasmas are prokaryotic plant pathogens causing severe losses to crops worldwide. Novel approaches are needed since insecticides against their insect vectors and rogueing of infected plants are the only available strategies to counteract phytoplasma diseases. A new iflavirus, named EVV-1, has been described in the leafhopper phytoplasma vector Euscelidius variegatus, raising the potential to use virus-based application strategies against phytoplasma disease. Here transmission routes of EVV-1 are characterized, and localization within the host reveals the mechanism of insect tolerance to virus infection. Both vertical and horizontal transmission of EVV-1 occur and vertical transmission was more efficient. The virus is systemic and occurs in all life-stages, with the highest loads measured in ovaries and first to third instar nymphs. The basic knowledge gained here on the biology of the virus is crucial for possible future application of iflaviruses as biocontrol agents.