C-terminalN-alkylated peptide amides resulting from the linker decomposition of the Rink amide resin. A new cleavage mixture prevents their formation

A Diphenylalanine Based Pentapeptide with Fibrillating Self-Assembling Properties

Peptides and their related compounds can self-assemble into diverse nanostructures of different shapes and sizes in response to various stimuli such as pH, temperature or ionic strength. Here we report the synthesis and characterization of a lysozyme derived pentapeptide and its ability to build well-defined fibrillar structures. Lysozyme FESNF peptide fragment was synthesized by solid phase peptide synthesis using the Fmoc/t-Bu strategy, purified by analytical high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and its molecular weight was confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). Spectroscopic features of this pentapeptide were investigated by UV-visible spectroscopy and fluorimetry showing the pattern of marginal phenylalanine residues within the peptide sequence. Self-assembling properties were determined using atomic force microscopy (AFM), aggregation index and thioflavin T assay (ThT). FESNF generating fibrillar structures observed by AFM and aggregation propensity were primarily influenced by pH conditions. Moreover, the experimental data were confirmed by molecular dynamics simulation studies. The obtained fibrils will be used next to explore their potential to act as support material for medical and cosmetic application.

Development of Fmoc-Protected Bis-Amino Acids toward Automated Synthesis of Highly Functionalized Spiroligomers

We report the fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc) protection of functionalized bis-amino acid building blocks using a temporary Cu²⁺ complexation strategy, together with an efficient multikilogram-scale synthesis of bis-amino acid precursors. This allows the synthesis of stereochemically and functionally diverse spiroligomers utilizing solid-phase Fmoc/tBu chemistry to facilitate the development of applications. Four tetramers were assembled on a semiautomated microwave peptide synthesizer. We determined their secondary structures with two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

An Electrochemical Approach to Designer Peptide α-Amides Inspired by α-Amidating Monooxygenase Enzymes

Designer C-terminal peptide amides are accessed in an efficient and epimerization-free approach by pairing an electrochemical oxidative decarboxylation with a tandem hydrolysis/reduction pathway. Resembling Nature's dual enzymatic approach to bioactive primary α-amides, this method delivers secondary and tertiary amides bearing high-value functional motifs, including isotope labels and handles for bioconjugation. The protocol leverages the inherent reactivity of C-terminal carboxylates, is compatible with the vast majority of proteinogenic functional groups, and proceeds in the absence of epimerization, thus addressing major limitations associated with conventional coupling-based approaches. The utility of the method is exemplified through the synthesis of natural product acidiphilamide A via a key diastereoselective reduction, as well as bioactive peptides and associated analogues, including an anti-HIV lead peptide and blockbuster cancer therapeutic leuprolide.

Intracellular targets: A multiple cargo transporting molecule

The generation of cell-penetrating peptides as cargo-delivery systems has produced an immense number of studies owing to the importance of these systems as tools to deliver molecules into the cells, as well as due to the interest to shed light into a yet unclear mechanism of the entrance of these peptides into the cells. However, many cell-penetrating peptides might present drawbacks due to causing cellular toxicity, or due to being entrapped in endosomes, or as a result of their degradation before they meet their target. In this work, a cargo transporting molecule, the Cell Penetrating Sequential Oligopeptide Carrier (CPSOC), formed by the repetitive -Lys-Aib-Cys- moiety, was tested for its ability to penetrate the cell membrane and transport the conjugated peptides into the cells. The cysteine residue anchors bioactive molecules through a stable thioether bond. The lysine supplies the positive charge to the construct, whereas the α-amino isobutyric acid is well known to induce helicoid conformation to the peptide backbone and protects from enzymatic degradation. The present study demonstrates that CPSOC penetrates the membrane transporting the conjugated cargo into the cell. When we tested CPSOC-conjugated peptides carrying critical domains of Cdc42, a small GTPase implicated in exocytosis, the internalized peptides were found to be functional because they inhibited exocytosis of von Willebrand factor from endothelial Weibel-Palade bodies a trafficking event depending on the Cdc42 protein. The data suggest that the carrier can deliver efficiently functional peptides into the cells, and thus, it can be used as a multiple-cargo transporting molecule.

Synthesis and structure-activity relationship studies of IgG-binding peptides focused on the C-terminal histidine residue

Currently, IgG-binding peptides are widely utilized as a research tool, as molecules that guide substrates to the Fc site for site-selective antibody modification, leading to preparation of a homogeneous antibody-drug conjugate. In this study, a structure-activity relationship study of an IgG-binding peptide, 15-IgBP, that is focused on its C-terminal His residue was performed in an attempt to create more potent peptides. A peptide with a substitution of His17 by 2-pyridylalanine (2-Pya) showed a good binding affinity (15-His17(2-Pya), K d = 75.7 nM). In combination with a previous result, we obtained 15-Lys8Leu/His17(2-Pya)-OH that showed a potent binding affinity (K d = 2.48 nM) and avoided three synthetic problems concerning the p-hydroxybenzyl amidation at the C-terminus, the difficulty associated with coupling at the His7 position and the racemization of 2-Pya.

Neutral endopeptidase (NEP) inhibitors - thiorphan, sialorphin, and its derivatives exert anti-proliferative activity towards colorectal cancer cells in vitro

Neutral endopeptidase (NEP) is an enzyme implicated in development of different tumors, e.g. colorectal cancer (CRC). In this study, the anti-cancer effects of NEP inhibitors, thiorphan (synthetic compound) and sialorphin (naturally occurring pentapeptide) on CRC cells were investigated. Moreover, we synthesized some derivatives of sialorphin (alanine scan analogues: AHNPR, QANPR, QHAPR, QHNAR; N-acetylated sialorphin; C-amidated sialorphin, and C-amidated alanine scan analogues) to examine the biological activity of these inhibitors on CRC cells. The cytotoxic activity of the NEP inhibitors against CRC cell lines (SW620 and LS180) and normal human fibroblasts (HSF) was evaluated. Additionally, the influence of NEP inhibitors on proliferation, cell cycle progression, induction of apoptosis, and the level of phosphorylation of MAP kinases and mTORC1 signaling pathway proteins in CRC cells were examined. The NEP inhibitors were non-cytotoxic to HSF cells; however, most of them slightly decreased the viability and inhibited proliferation of CRC cells. The N-acetylation or C-amidation of sialorphin or its alanine scan analogues resulted in decreased or abolished anti-proliferative activity of the NEP inhibitors towards the CRC cells. Additionally, thiorphan and sialorphin enhanced the anti-proliferative activity of other CRC-cell growth inhibitors (atrial natriuretic peptide-ANP and melphalan-MEL). The mechanisms involved in the anti-proliferative effects of the tested inhibitors were mediated via NEP and associated with induction of cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase, increased activity of ERK1/2, and a reduced level of phosphorylation of mTOR (Ser2448), 4E-BP1, and p70S6K. However, the NEP inhibitors did not induce apoptosis in the CRC cells. These results have indicated that thiorphan and sialorphin or its derivatives AHNPR, QANPR, QHAPR, and QHNAR have the potential to be used as agents in treatment of patients with CRC.

Beta amino acid-modified and fluorescently labelled kisspeptin analogues with potent KISS1R activity

Kisspeptin analogues with improved metabolic stability may represent important ligands in the study of the kisspeptin/KISS1R system and have therapeutic potential. In this paper we assess the activity of known and novel kisspeptin analogues utilising a dual luciferase reporter assay in KISS1R-transfected HEK293T cells. In general terms the results reflect the outcomes of other assay formats and a number of potent agonists were identified among the analogues, including β(2) -hTyr-modified and fluorescently labelled forms. We also showed, by assaying kisspeptin in the presence of protease inhibitors, that proteolysis of kisspeptin activity within the reporter assay itself may diminish the agonist outputs. Copyright © 2016 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Towards Prebiotic Catalytic Amyloids Using High Throughput Screening

Enzymes are capable of directing complex stereospecific transformations and of accelerating reaction rates many orders of magnitude. As even the simplest known enzymes comprise thousands of atoms, the question arises as to how such exquisite catalysts evolved. A logical predecessor would be shorter peptides, but they lack the defined structure and size that are apparently necessary for enzyme functions. However, some very short peptides are able to assemble into amyloids, thereby forming a well-defined tertiary structure called the cross-β-sheet, which bestows unique properties upon the peptides. We have hypothesized that amyloids could have been the catalytically active precursor to modern enzymes. To test this hypothesis, we designed an amyloid peptide library that could be screened for catalytic activity. Our approach, amenable to high-throughput methodologies, allowed us to find several peptides and peptide mixtures that form amyloids with esterase activity. These results indicate that amyloids, with their stability in a wide range of conditions and their potential as catalysts with low sequence specificity, would indeed be fitting precursors to modern enzymes. Furthermore, our approach can be efficiently expanded upon in library size, screening conditions, and target activity to yield novel amyloid catalysts with potential applications in aqueous-organic mixtures, at high temperature and in other extreme conditions that could be advantageous for industrial applications.

Tetrahydropyranyl, a nonaromatic acid-labile Cys protecting group for Fmoc peptide chemistry

Tetrahydropyranyl (Thp), which exploits the concept of being an S,O-acetal nonaromatic protecting group for cysteine, has been shown to be superior to Trt, Dpm, Acm, and StBu in solid-phase peptide synthesis using the Fmoc/tBu strategy. Thus, Cys racemization and C-terminal 3-(1-piperidinyl)alanine formation were minimized when the Cys was protected with Thp. This nonaromatic protecting group also improved the solubility of Cys-containing protected peptides.

Propargyloxyproline Regio- and Stereoisomers for Click-Conjugation of Peptides: Synthesis and Application in Linear and Cyclic Peptides

The use of the click reaction for the introduction of conjugate groups, such as affinity or fluorescent labels, to a peptide for the study of peptide biochemistry and pharmacology is widespread. However, the nature and location of substituted 1,2,3-triazoles in peptide sequences may markedly affect conformation or binding as compared with native sequences. We have examined the preparation and application of propargyloxyproline (Pop) residues as a precursor to such peptide conjugates. Pop residues are available in a range of regio- and stereoisomers from hydroxyproline precursors and are readily prepared in Fmoc-protected form. They can be incorporated routinely in peptide synthesis and broadly retain the conformational properties of the parent proline containing peptides. This is exemplified by the preparation of biotin- and fluorophore-labelled peptides derived from linear and cyclic peptides.

Photoactive Spatial Proximity Probes for Binding Pairs with Epigenetic Marks

A new strategy for encoding polypeptide libraries with photolabile tags is developed. The photoassisted assay, based on conditional release of encoding tags only from bound pairs, can differentiate between peptides which have minor differences in a form of post-translational modifications with epigenetic marks. The encoding strategy is fully compatible with automated peptide synthesis. The encoding pendants are compact and do not perturb potential binding interactions.

Synthetic control of isolated, single functional groups on silica surfaces

We report control of the density of isolated, single functional groups in homogeneously mixed trichloroalkyl silanes on various silica surfaces. The functional groups are covalently bound to a silane derived from the Rink resin. This Rink-silane is reactive to any nucleophile. Control over the density of functional groups is achieved by diluting the immersion solution containing the Rink-silane with an inert silane, octadecyltrichlorsilane. The isolated nature of the functional groups is confirmed by the stochastic blinking of fluorescent single boron-dipyrromethane dyes imaged in total internal reflection geometry. The robust character of silane monolayers allows facile covalent binding and cleavage of molecular species from silica surfaces as well as general synthetic transformations to be conducted. This is shown by the covalent attachment and then cleavage of a naphthalene chromophore. This low-cost and scalable platform has great potential for use in sensing, molecular electronics, semiconductor processing, and the investigation of fundamental processes in catalysis and the kinetics of molecular association.

A parallel semisynthetic approach for structure-activity relationship studies of peptide YY

The gut hormone peptide YY (PYY) is postprandially secreted from enteroendocrine L cells and is involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis. The N-terminal truncated version PYY(3-36) decreases food intake and has potential as an anti-obesity agent. The anorectic effect of PYY(3-36) is mediated through Y₂ receptors in the hypothalamus, vagus, and brainstem regions, and it is well known that the C-terminal tetrapeptide sequence of PYY(3-36) is crucial for Y2 receptor activation. The aim of this work was to develop a semisynthetic methodology for the generation of a library of C-terminally modified PYY(3-36) analogues. By using an intein-based expression system, PYY(3-29) was generated as a C-terminal peptide α-thioester. Heptapeptides bearing an N-terminal cysteine and modifications at one of the four C-terminal positions were synthesized in a 96-well plate by parallel solid-phase synthesis. In the plate format, an array of [Ala30]PYY(3-36) analogues were generated by ligation, desulfurization, and subsequent solid-phase extraction. The generated analogues, in which either Arg33, Gln34, Arg35, or Tyr36 had been substituted with proteinogenic or non-proteinogenic amino acids, were tested in a functional Y₂ receptor assay. Generally, substitutions of Tyr36 were better tolerated than modifications of Arg33, Gln34, and Arg35. Two analogues showed significantly improved Y₂ receptor selectivity; therefore, these results could be used to design new drug candidates for the treatment of obesity.

[Synthesis and cardioprotective properties of apelin-12 and its structural analogs]

The apelin-12 and a number of its analogs, resistant to degradation of proteases, were synthesized by Fmoc- method of SPPS. By-products of synthesis were examined. It was found that serine hydroxyl group was sulfating during the final deprotection of apelin-12 (I) and its analogs. Sulfate moiety of Arg-protecting group transfer into hydroxyl group of Ser. Amount of by-product depends on presence of water in cleavage mixture. Furthermore, the final deprotection of amide analogs of apelin-12 (III, IV) is closed with formation of by-product--4-hydroxybenzylamide, its amount range on 20-8% on reaction mixture accordance HPLC data and also depend on composition of cleavage mixture. Effects of the synthesized peptides on recovery of cardiac function after ischemia were examined in a model of isolated perfused rat heart. Infusions of any of the peptides (I-V) before ischemia resulted in a significant improvement of contractile and pump function recovery compared to the control. Cardioptotective efficacy of the peptides increased in the following rank (I) < (II) = (III) < (IV) = (V).

Peptide microarrays to interrogate the "histone code"

Histone posttranslational modifications (PTMs) play a pivotal role in regulating the dynamics and function of chromatin. Supported by an increasing body of literature, histone PTMs such as methylation and acetylation function together in the context of a "histone code," which is read, or interpreted, by effector proteins that then drive a functional output in chromatin (e.g., gene transcription). A growing number of domains that interact with histones and/or their PTMs have been identified. While significant advances have been made in our understanding of how these domains interact with histones, a wide number of putative histone-binding motifs have yet to be characterized, and undoubtedly, novel domains will continue to be discovered. In this chapter, we provide a detailed method for the construction of combinatorially modified histone peptides, microarray fabrication using these peptides, and methods to characterize the interaction of effector proteins, antibodies, and the substrate specificity of histone-modifying enzymes. We discuss these methods in the context of other available technologies and provide a user-friendly approach to enable the exploration of histone-protein-enzyme interactions and function.

A highly constrained cyclic (S,S)-CDC- peptide is a potent inhibitor of carotid artery thrombosis in rabbits

Inhibition of platelet aggregation is indispensable for the treatment of acute arterial thrombotic episodes. We have previously reported the synthesis of a highly constrained cyclic peptide, that incorporates the -CDC- sequence, (S,S) PSRCDCR-NH(2), which potently inhibits aggregation and fibrinogen binding to human platelets in vitro. We have tested the safety and efficacy of the peptide on the electrically induced carotid artery thrombosis experimental rabbit model. The peptide's effects on carotid blood flow, thrombus weight, in vitro and ex vivo platelet aggregation, and bleeding and hemostatic parameters were evaluated. The peptide was administered via the femoral vein. Carotid blood flow was continuously monitored for 90 min after electrical thrombus formation. The peptide, at 12 mg/kg, prevented total artery occlusion and significantly preserved carotid artery's patency compared with placebo and eptifibatide. Furthermore, (S,S) PSRCDCR-NH(2) administration at 12 mg/kg reduced thrombus weight, whereas it inhibited ex vivo ADP, arachidonic acid (AA) and collagen-induced platelet aggregation. Moreover (S,S) PSRCDCR-NH(2) at 12 mg/kg presented significantly higher inhibitory effects on AA and collagen-induced ex vivo platelet aggregation compared to eptifibatide. The peptide at any dose did not affect the coagulation cascade, the bleeding times or the hemostatic response of the animals. Thus highly constrained cyclic peptides like (S,S) PSRCDCR-NH(2) that incorporate the -CDC- motif and fulfil certain conformational criteria represent novel compounds that potently inhibit thrombus formation, ex vivo platelet aggregation and carotid artery occlusion superiorly to other non-RGD peptides, such as YMESRADR, without causing hemorrhagic complications in a rabbit model of arterial thrombosis.

Influence of the metal complex-to-peptide linker on the synthesis and properties of bioactive CpMn(CO)3 peptide conjugates

By combining organometallic groups and peptides, a large number of conjugates with interesting new biological properties can be prepared. Especially, attachment to cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) that act as efficient cell delivery vehicles has come to the fore. However, the presence of the metal moiety in such systems can interfere with standard conjugate synthesis procedures which therefore need to be optimized for every new compound. In this work, we report on the preparation of six new cymantrene-sC18 peptide bioconjugates that were prepared by solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) techniques. The cymantrene complexes were chosen for their different linker to the peptide, to study the influence of the linker group on cellular uptake and cell viability of the conjugates. Interestingly, the attachment of the metal complex leads to a non-standard cleavage of the Rink amide linker used in the SPPS protocol under trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) treatment, resulting in peptide amides that are N-alkylated at the C-terminus. Furthermore, we found that depending on the type of cymantrene moiety attached, the formation of reactive carbocations which result from decomposition of the resin linker is facilitated and can alkylate the metal complex moiety. Both effects were analyzed by MS/MS studies and cleavage mixtures for efficient elimination of this byproduct formation were identified. Moreover, initial biological testing of the cytotoxicity of one of the bioconjugates gave promising results. Concentration-dependent cell viability studies of Cym1-sC18 on human MCF-7 breast adenocarcinoma cells gave an IC(50) value of 59.8 (+/- 6.7) microM and demonstrate their potential in anticancer chemotherapy.

Synthesis and antitumor activity of peptide-paclitaxel conjugates

Paclitaxel (Pac) is the most important anticancer drug used mainly in treatment of breast, lung, and ovarian cancer and is being investigated for use as a single agent for treatment of lung cancer, advanced head and neck cancers, and adenocarcinomas of the upper gastrointestinal tract. In this work, we present the synthesis of five 2'-paclitaxel-substituted analogs in which paclitaxel was covalently bound to peptides or as multiple copies to synthetic carriers. Ac-Cys(CH(2)CO-2'-Pac)-Arg-Gly-Asp-Arg-NH(2), Folyl-Cys(CH(2)CO-2'-Pac)-Arg-Gly-Asp-Ser-NH(2), Ac-[Lys-Aib-Cys(CH(2)CO-2'-Pac)](2)-NH(2), Ac-[Lys-Aib-Cys(CH(2)CO-2'-Pac)](3)-NH(2) and Ac-[Lys-Aib-Cys(CH(2)CO-2'-Pac)](4)-NH(2) were synthesized using 2'-halogeno-acetylated paclitaxel derivatives. Paclitaxel conjugates showed greater solubility in water than paclitaxel and inhibited the proliferation of human breast, prostate, and cervical cancer cell lines. Although all synthesized compounds had an antiproliferative activity, the Ac-[Lys-Aib-Cys(CH(2)CO-2'-Pac)](4)-NH(2) derivative showed improved biological activity in comparison with paclitaxel in cervical and prostate human cancer cells.