1
|
Drury T, Abellan JJ, Best N, White IR. Estimation of Treatment Policy Estimands for Continuous Outcomes Using Off-Treatment Sequential Multiple Imputation. Pharm Stat 2024. [PMID: 39099192 DOI: 10.1002/pst.2411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
The estimands framework outlined in ICH E9 (R1) describes the components needed to precisely define the effects to be estimated in clinical trials, which includes how post-baseline 'intercurrent' events (IEs) are to be handled. In late-stage clinical trials, it is common to handle IEs like 'treatment discontinuation' using the treatment policy strategy and target the treatment effect on outcomes regardless of treatment discontinuation. For continuous repeated measures, this type of effect is often estimated using all observed data before and after discontinuation using either a mixed model for repeated measures (MMRM) or multiple imputation (MI) to handle any missing data. In basic form, both these estimation methods ignore treatment discontinuation in the analysis and therefore may be biased if there are differences in patient outcomes after treatment discontinuation compared with patients still assigned to treatment, and missing data being more common for patients who have discontinued treatment. We therefore propose and evaluate a set of MI models that can accommodate differences between outcomes before and after treatment discontinuation. The models are evaluated in the context of planning a Phase 3 trial for a respiratory disease. We show that analyses ignoring treatment discontinuation can introduce substantial bias and can sometimes underestimate variability. We also show that some of the MI models proposed can successfully correct the bias, but inevitably lead to increases in variance. We conclude that some of the proposed MI models are preferable to the traditional analysis ignoring treatment discontinuation, but the precise choice of MI model will likely depend on the trial design, disease of interest and amount of observed and missing data following treatment discontinuation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ian R White
- MRC Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, University College London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Medcalf E, Turner RM, Espinoza D, He V, Bell KJL. Addressing missing outcome data in randomised controlled trials: A methodological scoping review. Contemp Clin Trials 2024; 143:107602. [PMID: 38857674 DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2024.107602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Missing outcome data is common in trials, and robust methods to address this are needed. Most trial reports currently use methods applicable under a missing completely at random assumption (MCAR), although this strong assumption can often be inappropriate. OBJECTIVE To identify and summarise current literature on the analytical methods for handling missing outcome data in randomised controlled trials (RCTs), emphasising methods appropriate for data missing at random (MAR) or missing not at random (MNAR). STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING We conducted a methodological scoping review and identified papers through searching four databases (MEDLINE, Embase, CENTRAL, and CINAHL) from January 2015 to March 2023. We also performed forward and backward citation searching. Eligible papers discussed methods or frameworks for handling missing outcome data in RCTs or simulation studies with an RCT design. RESULTS From 1878 records screened, our search identified 101 eligible papers. 90 (89%) papers described specific methods for addressing missing outcome data and 11 (11%) described frameworks for overall methodological approach. Of the 90 methods papers, 30 (33%) described methods under the MAR assumption, 48 (53%) explored methods under the MNAR assumption and 11 (12%) discussed methods under a hybrid of MAR and MNAR assumptions. Control-based methods under the MNAR assumption were the most common method explored, followed by multiple imputation under the MAR assumption. CONCLUSION This review provides guidance on available analytic approaches for handling missing outcome data, particularly under the MNAR assumption. These findings may support trialists in using appropriate methods to address missing outcome data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ellie Medcalf
- Sydney School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
| | - Robin M Turner
- Biostatistics Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - David Espinoza
- National Health and Medical Research Council Clinical Trials Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Vicky He
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Katy J L Bell
- Sydney School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cro S, Roger JH, Carpenter JR. Handling Partially Observed Trial Data After Treatment Withdrawal: Introducing Retrieved Dropout Reference-Base Centred Multiple Imputation. Pharm Stat 2024. [PMID: 39013479 DOI: 10.1002/pst.2416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
The ICH E9(R1) Addendum (International Council for Harmonization 2019) suggests treatment-policy as one of several strategies for addressing intercurrent events such as treatment withdrawal when defining an estimand. This strategy requires the monitoring of patients and collection of primary outcome data following termination of randomised treatment. However, when patients withdraw from a study early before completion this creates true missing data complicating the analysis. One possible way forward uses multiple imputation to replace the missing data based on a model for outcome on- and off-treatment prior to study withdrawal, often referred to as retrieved dropout multiple imputation. This article introduces a novel approach to parameterising this imputation model so that those parameters which may be difficult to estimate have mildly informative Bayesian priors applied during the imputation stage. A core reference-based model is combined with a retrieved dropout compliance model, using both on- and off-treatment data, to form an extended model for the purposes of imputation. This alleviates the problem of specifying a complex set of analysis rules to accommodate situations where parameters which influence the estimated value are not estimable, or are poorly estimated leading to unrealistically large standard errors in the resulting analysis. We refer to this new approach as retrieved dropout reference-base centred multiple imputation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suzie Cro
- Imperial Clinical Trials Unit, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - James H Roger
- Medical Statistics Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - James R Carpenter
- Medical Statistics Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- MRC Clinical Trials Unit @ UCL, UCL, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Fierenz A, Zapf A. Current developments of the estimand concept. Pharm Stat 2024. [PMID: 38676433 DOI: 10.1002/pst.2395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Since the introduction of the estimand in therapeutical studies, several adaptions have been developed. This short article highlights the important aspects of the estimand concept. A literature research was conducted to identify different extensions to this framework. Different modified strategies for intercurrent events are presented, as well as examples of methods to implement the estimand in clinical studies. The article reflects that the estimand is an ongoing research field with further exploration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Fierenz
- Institute of Medical Biometry and Epidemiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Antonia Zapf
- Institute of Medical Biometry and Epidemiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kahan BC, Hindley J, Edwards M, Cro S, Morris TP. The estimands framework: a primer on the ICH E9(R1) addendum. BMJ 2024; 384:e076316. [PMID: 38262663 PMCID: PMC10802140 DOI: 10.1136/bmj-2023-076316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Brennan C Kahan
- MRC Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, University College London, London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - Joanna Hindley
- MRC Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, University College London, London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| | - Mark Edwards
- Department of Anaesthesia, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK
- Southampton NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Suzie Cro
- Imperial Clinical Trials Unit, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Tim P Morris
- MRC Clinical Trials Unit at UCL, University College London, London WC1V 6LJ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hartley B, Drury T, Lettis S, Mayer B, Keene ON, Abellan JJ. Estimation of a treatment policy estimand for time to event data using data collected post discontinuation of randomised treatment. Pharm Stat 2022; 21:612-624. [PMID: 34997685 DOI: 10.1002/pst.2189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Discontinuation from randomised treatment is a common intercurrent event in clinical trials. When the target estimand uses a treatment policy strategy to deal with this intercurrent event, data after cessation of treatment is relevant to estimate the estimand and all efforts should be made to collect such data. Missing data may nevertheless occur due to participants withdrawing from the study and assumptions regarding the values for data that are missing are required for estimation. A missing-at-random assumption is commonly made in this setting, but it may not always be viewed as appropriate. Another potential approach is to assume missing values are similar to data collected after treatment discontinuation. This idea has been previously proposed in the context of recurrent event data. Here we extend this approach to time-to-event outcomes using the hazard function. We propose imputation models that allow for different hazard rates before and after treatment discontinuation and use the posttreatment discontinuation hazard to impute events for participants with missing follow-up periods due to study withdrawal. The imputation models are fitted as Andersen-Gill models. We illustrate the proposed methods with an example of a clinical trial in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas Drury
- Department of Biostatistics, GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Brentford, UK
| | - Sally Lettis
- Department of Biostatistics, GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Brentford, UK
| | - Bhabita Mayer
- Department of Biostatistics, GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Brentford, UK
| | - Oliver N Keene
- Department of Biostatistics, GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Brentford, UK
| | - Juan J Abellan
- Department of Biostatistics, GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Brentford, UK
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wei J, Mütze T, Jahn-Eimermacher A, Roger J. Properties of Two While-Alive Estimands for Recurrent Events and Their Potential Estimators. Stat Biopharm Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/19466315.2021.1994457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Wei
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research Co., Shanghai, China
| | | | | | - James Roger
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, United Kingdom on behalf of the Recurrent Event Qualification Opinion Consortium*
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhong Y, Cook RJ. Semiparametric recurrent event vs time-to-first-event analyses in randomized trials: Estimands and model misspecification. Stat Med 2021; 40:3823-3842. [PMID: 33880781 DOI: 10.1002/sim.9002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Insights regarding the merits of recurrent event and time-to-first-event analyses are needed to provide guidance on strategies for analyzing intervention effects in randomized trials involving recurrent event responses. Using established asymptotic results we introduce a framework for studying the large sample properties of estimators arising from semiparametric proportional rate function models and Cox regression under model misspecification. The asymptotic biases and power implications are investigated for different data generating models, and we study the impact of dependent censoring on these findings. Illustrative applications are given involving data from a cystic fibrosis trial and a carcinogenicity experiment, following which we summarize findings and discuss implications for clinical trial design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yujie Zhong
- School of Statistics and Management, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Richard J Cook
- Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Jin M, Liu G. Estimand framework: Delineating what to be estimated with clinical questions of interest in clinical trials. Contemp Clin Trials 2020; 96:106093. [PMID: 32777382 DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2020.106093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
ICH (International Council for Harmonization) E9 R1 (2019) proposes a framework to define estimands in clinical trials. Although the concept of estimand was proposed previously when US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued the panel report on handling missing data in clinical trials, many details including attributes and different strategies have not been developed until the recent ICH E9 (R1) addendum. A clearly defined estimand should include considerations of five attributes including patient population, treatment regimen of interest, endpoint/variables, handling of intercurrent events (IEs), and summary measures for assessing treatment effect. To evaluate the underlying treatment effects of a new investigational drug or biologic product, it is desirable to consider estimands that are aligned with the objectives of the study and that are meaningful to the stakeholders such as physicians or patients, health authority administration, and payers, etc.. In this paper, the concepts, attributes and strategies of the estimand framework will be reviewed and illustrated with clinical trial examples. Some common estimands and their associated scientific questions are discussed within a causal inference framework for longitudinal clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Man Jin
- AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, IL, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Król A, Palmér R, Rondeau V, Rennard S, Eriksson UG, Jauhiainen A. Improving the evaluation of COPD exacerbation treatment effects by accounting for early treatment discontinuations: a post-hoc analysis of randomized clinical trials. Respir Res 2020; 21:158. [PMID: 32571311 PMCID: PMC7310001 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-020-01419-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) clinical trials aimed at evaluating treatment effects on exacerbations often suffer from early discontinuations of randomized treatment. Treatment discontinuations imply a loss of information and should ideally be considered in the statistical analysis of trial results, particularly if the discontinuations are related to the disease or treatment itself. Here, we explore this issue by investigating (1) whether there exists an association between the risks of exacerbation and treatment discontinuation in COPD clinical trials and (2) whether disregarding this association can cause bias in exacerbation treatment effect estimates. We focus on the hypothetical estimand, i.e. the treatment effect that would have been observed had all subjects completed the trial as planned. Methods The association between exacerbation and discontinuation risks was analysed by applying a joint frailty (random effect) model – allowing for the simultaneous analysis of multiple types of correlated events – to data from five Phase III-IV COPD clinical trials. Specifically, the impact of the association on exacerbation treatment effect estimates was assessed by comparing the treatment hazard ratios of the joint frailty model to the rate/hazard ratios of two related statistical models (the negative binomial and shared frailty models), which both assume discontinuations to be unrelated to the trial outcome. The models were also compared using simulated data. Results A statistically significant (p < 0.0001), positive association between exacerbation and discontinuation risks was found in all trials. Importantly, simulations confirmed that – with such an association – models disregarding the association risk producing biased results (> 5 percentage point difference in hazard/rate ratio). For some treatment comparisons in the clinical trials, the difference in treatment effect estimates between the joint frailty and the other models was as high as 10–15 percentage points. The difference was affected by the strength of the exacerbation-discontinuation association, the population heterogeneity in exacerbation risk, and the difference in discontinuation rates between treatment arms. Conclusions We have identified an association between the risks of exacerbation and treatment discontinuation in five COPD clinical trials. We recommend using the joint frailty model to account for this association when estimating exacerbation treatment effects, particularly when targeting the hypothetical estimand.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Król
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Robert Palmér
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Virginie Rondeau
- Biostatistics Team, INSERM CR1219, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Stephen Rennard
- BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK.,University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Ulf G Eriksson
- Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Alexandra Jauhiainen
- BioPharma Early Biometrics and Statistical Innovation, Data Science & AI, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Pepparedsleden 1, SE-431 83, Mölndal, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|