Identification of sanguinarine metabolites in pig liver preparations by accurate mass measurements using electrospray ionization hybrid ion trap/time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Safety and efficacy of a feed additive consisting of Macleaya cordata (Willd.) R. Br. extract and leaves (Sangrovit® Extra) for suckling and weaned piglets and other growing Suidae (Phytobiotics Futterzusatzstoffe GmbH)

Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of Macleaya cordata (Willd.) R. Br. extract and leaves (Sangrovit® Extra) as a zootechnical feed additive for suckling and weaned piglets and other growing Suidae. The additive is standardised to contain a concentration of the sum of the four alkaloids sanguinarine, chelerythrine, protopine and allocryptopine of 1.25%, with 0.5% sanguinarine. Owing to the presence of the DNA intercalators sanguinarine and chelerythrine, a concern for genotoxicity was identified. The EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) had no safety concerns for the target species when the additive is used at the recommended level of 0.750 mg sanguinarine/kg complete feed for suckling and weaned piglets and other growing Suidae. Since in all consumer categories the exposure to sanguinarine and chelerythrine via the use of Sangrovit® Extra exceeds the threshold of toxicological concern of 0.0025 μg/kg bw per day for DNA reactive mutagens and/or carcinogens, the FEEDAP Panel could not conclude on the safety for the consumers. The additive was shown to be irritant to the eyes but not irritant to skin or a skin sensitiser. The FEEDAP Panel could not exclude the potential of the additive to be a respiratory sensitiser. When handling the additive, exposure of unprotected users to sanguinarine and chelerythrine may occur. Therefore, to reduce the risk, the exposure of users should be reduced. The use of Sangrovit® Extra as a feed additive under the proposed conditions of use was considered safe for the environment. The additive Sangrovit® Extra had the potential to be efficacious in improving performance of weaned piglets at 0.600 mg sanguinarine/kg complete feed. This conclusion was extended to suckling piglets and extrapolated to other growing Suidae.

Identification of Sanguinarine Metabolites in Rats Using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS

Sanguinarine (SAN), as the main active component of a traditional Chinese veterinary medicine, has been widely used in the animal husbandry and breeding industry. However, the metabolites of SA are still uncertain. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate the metabolites of SA based on rats in vivo. The blood, feces, and urine of rats were collected after the oral administration of 40 mg/kg SAN. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) was employed to identify the metabolites of SAN. The elemental composition of sanguinarine metabolites was inferred by analyzing their exact molecular weight, and the structures of the metabolites were predicted based on their fragment ions and cleavage pathways. A total of 12 metabolites were identified, including three metabolites in the plasma, four in the urine, and nine in the feces. According to the possible metabolic pathways deduced in this study, SAN was mainly metabolized through reduction, oxidation, demethylation, hydroxylation, and glucuronidation. This present research has summarized the metabolism of SAN in rats, which is helpful for further studying the metabolic mechanism of SAN in vivo and in vitro.

Recent advances in the use of phytochemicals to manage gastrointestinal oxidative stress in poultry and pigs

Plants are integral components of pig and poultry feed, and aside from their raw nutritive value, some phytochemicals contain bioactive compounds. The aim of the present paper is to review recent advances in the use of some phytochemicals in pig and poultry feed, focusing on the examples of isoquinoline alkaloids, polyphenol rich sugarcane extracts and superoxide dismutase-rich melon pulp extracts. As gut health is critical for efficient production, the review will focus on recent results modulating oxidative stress within the gastrointestinal tract and the potential mechanisms of action.

Metabolism and Tissue Distribution of Chelerythrine and Effects of Macleaya Cordata Extracts on Liver NAD(P)H Quinone Oxidoreductase

Background:Macleaya cordata (Willd.) (Papaveraceae) is listed as a feed additive in animal production by the European Food Authority.

Methods: The metabolites of chelerythrine in rats were measured in vitro and in vivo by rapid and accurate high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC/QqTOF-MS). The structures of CHE metabolites were elucidated by comparing their changes in accurate molecular masses and fragment ions with those of parent ion or metabolite. The metabolic enzymes that were involved in chelerythrine reduction were investigated using an inhibition method. The tissue distribution of chelerythrine and the effects on NQO1 following intragastric administration with M. cordata extracts in rats were examined.

Results: A total of twelve metabolites of chelerythrine were characterized by this approach in rat liver S9 and in vivo. The reduction of the iminium bond of chelerythrine and subsequent O-demethylation was the main metabolic pathway of chelerythrine in rat liver S9 while the reduction of the iminium bond of chelerythrine was the main metabolic pathway of chelerythrine in rats in vivo. After the rats were given intragastric administration, the low concentration residues of sanguinarine and chelerythrine in different rat tissues were found at 48 h after the last dose, suggesting that both compounds could be widely distributed in tissues. The results also indicated that XO, NQO1, NQO2, and carbonyl reductase are involved in chelerythrine reduction. Macleaya cordata extracts treated female and male rats, respectively, showed different responses, inhibiting NQO1 activity in males, but inducing NQO1 activity in females. Chelerythrine had a weak impact on NQO1 activity, but sanguinarine inhibited NQO1 activity

Conclusion: Through studying the effects of cytosolic reductase inhibitors on chelerythrine reduction and the impact of chelerythrine and sanguinarine on the activity of NQO1 in vitro and in vivo, we clarified the potential drug interaction of Macleaya cordata extract in clinical application, so as to provide theoretical guidance for clinically safe medication. In addition, it provided a reference basis for the metabolic mechanism of chelerythrinein rats.

The metabolism of gelsevirine in human, pig, goat and rat liver microsomes

Gelsemium is a small genus of flowering plants from the family Loganiaceae comprising five species, three of which, Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) J. St.‐Hil., G. elegans Benth and G. rankinii Small, are particularly popular. Compared with other alkaloids from G. elegans, gelsemine, gelsevirine and koumine exhibit equally potent anxiolytic effects and low toxicity. Although the pharmacological activities and metabolism of koumine and gelsemine have been reported in previous studies, the species differences of gelsevirine metabolism have not been well studied. In this study, the metabolism of gelsevirine was investigated by using liver microsomes of humans, pigs, goats and rats by means of HPLC‐QqTOF/MS. The results indicated that the metabolism of gelsevirine in liver microsomes had qualitative and quantitative species differences. Based on the results, the possible metabolic pathways of gelsevirine in liver microsomes were proposed. Investigation of the metabolism of gelsevirine will provide a basis for further studies of the in vivo metabolism of this drug.

The synthesis and biological evaluation of sanguinarine derivatives as anti-non-small cell lung cancer agents

A novel series of sanguinarine (SA) derivatives were synthesized and evaluated as anti-non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) agents. The compounds inhibited A549 and H1975 NSCLC cells with IC₅₀ values of 0.96 - >30 μM and 0.79 - >30 μM, respectively. Compounds 8d-8j exhibited low micromolar inhibitory activity and indicated that the C6-position of SA was tolerated to be substituted by hydrophilic groups and CN. Further investigation of their mechanism of action showed that compound 8h induced apoptosis of A549 and H1975 cells by inhibiting the Akt signaling pathway and elevating the reactive oxygen species (ROS). This study provided a strategy for developing new anti-cancer agents.

Sanguinarine metabolism and pharmacokinetics study in vitro and in vivo

Sanguinarine (SA) is a benzo[c] phenanthridine alkaloid which has a variety of pharmacological properties. However, very little was known about the pharmacokinetics of SA and its metabolite dihydrosanguinarine (DHSA) in pigs. The purpose of this work was to study the intestinal metabolism of SA in vitro and in vivo. Reductive metabolite DHSA was detected during incubation of SA with intestinal mucosa microsomes, cytosol, and gut flora. After oral (p.o.) administration of SA, the result showed SA might be reduced to DHSA in pig intestine. After i.m. administration, SA and DHSA rapidly increased to reach their peak concentrations (C_max , 30.16 ± 5.85, 5.61 ± 0.73 ng/ml, respectively) at 0.25 hr. Both compounds were completely eliminated from the plasma after 24 hr. After single oral administration, SA and DHSA rapidly increased to reach their C_max (3.41 ± 0.36, 2.41 ± 0.24 ng/ml, respectively) at 2.75 ± 0.27 hr. The half-life (T_1/2 ) values were 2.33 ± 0.11 hr and 2.20 ± 0.12 hr for SA and DHSA, respectively. After multiple oral administration, the average steady-state concentrations (C_ss ) of SA and DHSA were 3.03 ± 0.39 and 1.42 ± 0.20 ng/ml. The accumulation indexes for SA and DHSA were 1.21 and 1.11. The work reported here provides important information on the metabolism sites and pharmacokinetic character of SA. It explains the reasons for low toxicity of SA, which is useful for the evaluation of its performance.

Differentiation, chemical profiles and quality evaluation of five medicinal Stephania species (Menispermaceae) through integrated DNA barcoding, HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS and UHPLC-DAD

Stephania species is one of the alkaloid-rich genus of the family Menispermaceae. Most plants of the genus Stephania possess medicinal value, whose main components are alkaloids. However, the non-medical species are often mistakenly used as herbs because of the difficulty in identification of the species. A systematic method which involved the combination of DNA barcoding, HPLC-QTOF-MS/MS and UHPLC was established for differentiation, chemical profiles and quality evaluation of medicinal Stephania species. Firstly, twenty batches of Stephania species samples were classified into five Stephania species by DNA barcoding. Secondly, 114 alkaloids including 22 tetrahydroprotoberberines, 13 protoberberines, 27 aporphines, 13 benzylisoquinolines, 12 hasubanans, 3 morphines and 24 other alkaloids were clearly or tentatively identified. Thirdly, thirteen representative components were simultaneously detected by UHPLC-DAD to characterize the differences of chemical compositions among five Stephania species. In conclusion, this method was comprehensive and effective for identification, chemical profiles and quality evaluation of medicinal Stephania species. It will provide a basis for holistic quality evaluation of medicinal Stephania species.

Characterization of gelsevirine metabolites in rat liver S9 by accurate mass measurements using high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Gelsemium elegans Benth. belongs to the family Loganiaceae and is widely distributed in northern America, east Asia, and southeast Asia. It has attracted wide attention for its diverse biological effects and complex architectures. Gelsevirine is one of the major components in G. elegans. Compared with other alkaloids from G. elegans, gelsevirine exhibits equally potent anxiolytic effects but with less toxicity. However, the metabolism of gelsevirine has not been clearly elucidated.

METHODS

The metabolism of gelsevirine was investigated using liver S9 fractions derived from rat liver homogenates by centrifugation at 9000 g. A rapid and accurate high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC/QqTOF-MS) method was applied to characterize the gelsevirine metabolites.

RESULTS

We discovered a total number of four metabolites of gelsevirine. The metabolic pathways of gelsevirine consisted of hydrogenation, N-demethylenation and oxidation in rat liver S9.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study on the metabolism of gelsevirine. We proposed possible metabolic pathways of gelsevirine. These findings may warrant future studies of the in vivo metabolism of gelsemine in animals.

Pharmacokinetics of sanguinarine, chelerythrine, and their metabolites in broiler chickens following oral and intravenous administration

Sanguinarine (SA) and chelerythrine (CHE) are the main active components of the phytogenic livestock feed additive, Sangrovit®. However, little information is available on the pharmacokinetics of Sangrovit® in poultry. The goal of this work was to study the pharmacokinetics of SA, CHE, and their metabolites, dihydrosanguinarine (DHSA) and dihydrochelerythrine (DHCHE), in 10 healthy female broiler chickens following oral (p.o.) administration of Sangrovit® and intravenous (i.v.) administration of a mixture of SA and CHE. The plasma samples were processed using two different simple protein precipitation methods because the parent drugs and metabolites are stable under different pH conditions. The absorption and metabolism of SA following p.o. administration were fast, with half-life (t_1/2 ) values of 1.05 ± 0.18 hr and 0.83 ± 0.10 hr for SA and DHSA, respectively. The maximum concentration (C_max ) of DHSA (2.49 ± 1.4 μg/L) was higher that of SA (1.89 ± 0.8 μg/L). The area under the concentration vs. time curve (AUC) values for SA and DHSA were 9.92 ± 5.4 and 6.08 ± 3.49 ng/ml hr, respectively. Following i.v. administration, the clearance (CL) of SA was 6.79 ± 0.63 (L·h^-1 ·kg^-1 ) with a t_1/2 of 0.34 ± 0.13 hr. The AUC values for DHSA and DHCHE were 7.48 ± 1.05 and 0.52 ± 0.09 (ng/ml hr), respectively. These data suggested that Sangrovit® had low absorption and bioavailability in broiler chickens. The work reported here provides useful information on the pharmacokinetic behavior of Sangrovit® after p.o. and i.v. administration in broiler chickens, which is important for the evaluation of its use in poultry.

Medicinal plants of the genus Macleaya (Macleaya cordata, Macleaya microcarpa): A review of their phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology

In the genus Macleaya, Macleaya cordata and Macleaya microcarpa have been recognized as traditional herbs that are primarily distributed in China, North America, and Europe and have a long history of medicinal usage. These herbs have been long valued and studied for detumescence, detoxification, and insecticidal effect. This review aims to provide comprehensive information on botanical, phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies on plants in the genus Macleaya. Plants from the genus of Macleaya provide a source of bioactive compounds, primarily alkaloids, with remarkable diversity and complex architectures, thereby having attracted attention from researchers. To date, 291 constituents have been identified and/or isolated from this group. These purified compounds and/or crude extract possess antitumor, anti-inflammatory, insecticidal, and antibacterial activities in addition to certain potential toxicities. Macleaya species hold potential for medicinal applications. However, despite the pharmacological studies on these plants, the mechanisms underlying the biological activities of active ingredients derived from Macleaya have not been thoroughly elucidated to date. Additionally, there is a need for research focusing on in vivo medical effects of Macleaya compounds and, eventually, for clinical trials.

Identification of allocryptopine and protopine metabolites in rat liver S9 by high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Allocryptopine (AL) and protopine (PR) have been extensively studied because of their anti-parasitic, anti-arrhythmic, anti-thrombotic, anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial activity. However, limited information on the pharmacokinetics and metabolism of AL and PR has been reported. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the in vitro metabolism of AL and PR in rat liver S9 using a rapid and accurate high-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC/QqTOFMS) method.

METHODS

The incubation mixture was processed with 15% trichloroacetic acid (TCA). Multiple scans of AL and PR metabolites and accurate mass measurements were automatically performed simultaneously through data-dependent acquisition in only a 30-min analysis. The structural elucidations of these metabolites were performed by comparing their changes in accurate molecular masses and product ions with those of the precursor ion or metabolite.

RESULTS

Eight and five metabolites of AL and PR were identified in rat liver S9, respectively. Among these metabolites, seven and two metabolites of AL and PR were identified in the first time, respectively. The demethylenation of the 2,3-methylenedioxy, the demethylation of the 9,10-vicinal methoxyl group and the 2,3-methylenedioxy group were the main metabolic pathways of AL and PR in liver S9, respectively. In addition, the cleavage of the methylenedioxy group of the drugs and subsequent methylation or O-demethylation were also the common metabolic pathways of drugs in liver S9. In addition, the hydroxylation reaction was also the metabolic pathway of AL.

CONCLUSIONS

This was the first investigation of in vitro metabolism of AL and PR in rat liver S9. The detailed structural elucidations of AL and PR metabolites were performed using a rapid and accurate HPLC/QqTOFMS method. The metabolic pathways of AL and PR in rat were tentatively proposed based on these characterized metabolites and early reports. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In silico target fishing and pharmacological profiling for the isoquinoline alkaloids of Macleaya cordata (Bo Luo Hui)

Background

Some isoquinoline alkaloids from Macleaya cordata (Willd). R. Br. (Bo Luo Hui) exhibited antibacterial, antiparasitic, antitumor, and analgesic effects. The targets of these isoquinoline alkaloids are undefined. This study aims to investigate the compound–target interaction network and potential pharmacological actions of isoquinoline alkaloids of M. cordata by reverse pharmacophore database screening.

Methods

The targets of 26 isoquinoline alkaloids identified from M. cordata were predicted by a pharmacophore-based target fishing approach. Discovery Studio 3.5 and two pharmacophore databases (PharmaDB and HypoDB) were employed for the target profiling. A compound–target interaction network of M. cordata was constructed and analyzed by Cytoscape 3.0.

Results

Thirteen of the 65 predicted targets identified by PharmaDB were confirmed as targets by HypoDB screening. The targets in the interaction network of M. cordata were involved in cancer (31 targets), microorganisms (12 targets), neurodegeneration (10 targets), inflammation and autoimmunity (8 targets), parasitosis (5 targets), injury (4 targets), and pain (3 targets). Dihydrochelerythrine (C6) was found to hit 23 fitting targets. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) hits 15 alkaloids (C1–2, C11–16, C19–25) was the most promising target related to cancer.

Conclusion

Through in silico target fishing, the anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic effects of M. cordata were the most significant among many possible activities. The possible anticancer effects were mainly contributed by the isoquinoline alkaloids as active components.

Knockdown of the NHR-8 nuclear receptor enhanced sensitivity to the lipid-reducing activity of alkaloids in Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a versatile, whole-organism model for bioactivity screening. However, this worm has extensive defensive mechanisms against xenobiotics which limit its use for screening of pharmacologically active compounds. In this study, we report that knockdown of nhr-8, a gene involved in the xenobiotic response, increased the worm's sensitivity to the lipid-reducing effects of some isoquinoline alkaloids, especially berberine. On the other hand, crude extract of rhizome and cultured cells showed enhanced biological activity compared to the pure alkaloids in wild type worm, but this enhanced activity was not detected in nhr-8 RNAi worm, suggesting that some components in cell extracts might interfere with the defense response in this worm. The possibility of using C. elegans as a model for screening bioactive chemicals is discussed.