Interface Structure and Dynamics in Polymer‐Nanoparticle Hybrids: A Review on Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Improved Interfaces

Surface modification of nanoparticles for enhanced applicability of nanofluids in harsh reservoir conditions: A comprehensive review for improved oil recovery

Nanoparticles improve traditional Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) methods but face instability issues. Surface modification resolves these, making it vital to understand its impact on EOR effectiveness. This paper examines how surface-modified nanoparticles can increase oil recovery rates. We discuss post-synthesis modifications like chemical functionalization, surfactant and polymer coatings, surface etching, and oxidation, and during-synthesis modifications like core-shell formation, in-situ ligand exchange, and surface passivation. Oil displacement studies show surface-engineered nanoparticles outperform conventional EOR methods. Coatings or functionalizations alter nanoparticle size by 1-5 nm, ensuring colloidal stability for 7 to 30 days at 25 to 65 °C and 30,000 to 150,000 ppm NaCl. This stability ensures uniform distribution and enhanced penetration through low-permeability (1-10 md) rocks, improving oil recovery by 5 to 50 %. Enhanced recovery is achieved through 1-25 μm oil-in-water emulsions, increased viscosity by ≥30 %, wettability changes from 170° to <10°, and interfacial tension reductions of up to 95 %. Surface oxidation is suitable for carbon-based nanoparticles in high-permeability (≥500 md) reservoirs, leading to 80 % oil recovery in micromodel studies. Surface etching is efficient for all nanoparticle types, and combining it with chemical functionalization enhances resistance to harsh conditions (≥40,000 ppm salinity and ≥ 50 °C). Modifying nanoparticle surfaces with a silane coupling agent before using polymers and surfactants improves EOR parameters and reduces polymer thermal degradation (e.g., only 10 % viscosity decrease after 90 days). Economically, 500 ppm of nanoparticles requires 56.25 kg in a 112,500 m3 reservoir, averaging $200/kg, and 2000 ppm of surface modifiers require 4 kg at $3.39/kg. This results in 188,694.30 barrels, or $16,039,015.50 at $85 per barrel for a 20 % increase in oil recovery. The economic benefits justify the initial costs, highlighting the importance of cost-effective nanoparticles for EOR applications.

CFD simulation of silica dispersion/natural rubber latex mixing for high silica content rubber composite production

High silica contents rubber composites are favored in the green tire industry for their ability to reduce rolling resistance. However, achieving effective silica dispersion in natural rubber, particularly at high silica content, poses a challenge. In addition, the choice of impeller configuration significantly influences mixing performance, especially in commercial production, which requires large mixing tanks. Therefore, understanding the scaling-up process for this mixing system is essential. This research aims to investigate the mixing of silica dispersion in natural latex, specifically focusing on a high silica content regime. The flow characteristics of each liquid phase were simulated by employing the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) approach, with a two-fluid model serving as the model based. Analyses were conducted on two variants of stirred tank reactors including four baffles and flat bottoms. Four configurations of Rushton turbine impellers were considered: four 90° blades (RT4-90), four 45° blades (RT4-45), six 90° blades (RT6-90), and six 45° blades (RT6-45). The simulations revealed that the 90° blade promoted the radial flow, while the 45° blades enhanced axial flow, through the process of diverting a significant proportion of the fluid above impeller, this regime effectively increases the liquid's velocity. Increasing the number of blades led to a more homogeneous velocity profile within the impeller region. Additionally, higher fluid velocity was observed in a larger mixing tank. In a smaller tank, the impact of impeller design (number and angle of the impeller) on mixing time was less pronounced. However, the mixing time decreased with the increasing blade number in a larger tank. In addition, the 45° blade angle tends to decrease the mixing time. The optimum design is the Ruston turbine with six blades set at a 45° angle. Furthermore, the upscaling criteria that were proposed by Norwood and Metzner were used into this inquiry. The suggested scaling criterion was consistently applied to the mixing of high silica natural latex, with no deviation exceeding 10%.

Particle dispersion governs nano to bulk dynamics for tailored nanocomposite design

Nanoparticle addition can expand bioplastic use, as the resultant nanocomposite features e.g., improved mechanical properties.

HYPOTHESIS

It is generally hypothesised that the nanoparticle-polymer interaction strength is pivotal to reduce polymer dynamics within the interphasial region and beyond.

EXPERIMENTS

Translating nanoscale phenomena to bulk properties is challenging, as traditional techniques that probe interphasial dynamics are limited to well-dispersed systems. Laser speckle imaging (LSI) enabled us to probe interphasial nanoscale dynamics of samples containing aggregated nanoparticles. We relate these LSI-derived relaxation times to bulk rheological properties at a micro scale.

FINDINGS

Nanocomposites with well-dispersed PDMS-coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles of ∼100 nm showed higher viscosities than nanocomposites containing aggregated PVP- and PAA-coated nanoparticles of 200-2000 nm. Within the interphasial region, nanoparticle addition increased relaxation times by a factor 101-102, reaching ultraslow relaxations of ∼103 s. While the viscosity increased upon nanoparticle loading, interphasial relaxation times plateaued at 5 wt% for nanocomposites containing well-dispersed nanoparticles and 10 wt% for nanocomposites containing aggregated nanoparticles. Likely, interphasial regions between nanoparticles interact, which is more prominent in systems with well-dispersed nanoparticles and at higher loadings. Our results highlight that, contrary to general belief, nanoparticle dispersion seems of greater importance for mechanical reinforcement than the interaction between polymer and particle.

From fundamental insights to rational (bio)polymer nanocomposite design - Connecting the nanometer to meter scale

Nanoparticle addition has the potential to make bioplastic use mainstream, as the resultant nanocomposite shows improved mechanical, barrier, and thermal properties. It is well established that the architecture and dynamics of the nanoparticle-polymer interphasial region, ∼ 1.5-9 nm from the nanoparticle surface, are crucial for nanocomposite characteristics. Yet, how these molecular phenomena translate to the bulk is still largely unknown. A multi-disciplinary and multi-scale vision is required to capture the full picture and improve materials far beyond what is currently possible. In this review, a first step in bridging the apparent gap between fundamental insights toward observed material properties is made. At the molecular scale, the polymer chain density and dynamics at the nanoparticle surface are governed by a complex interplay between enthalpy and entropy. The resultant interphasial properties can only be propagated to the macroscopic scale effectively when the nanoparticles are well-distributed. This makes the dispersion state a key parameter for which thermodynamic and kinetic insights can be used to prevent nanoparticle aggregation. These insights are linked to material properties relevant to packaging. The outlook section elaborates on the remaining challenges and the steps required to further understand and better design nanocomposite systems.

Molecular Insights into Antioxidant Efficiency of Melanin: A Sustainable Antioxidant for Natural Rubber Formulations

N-(1,3-Dimethyl butyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6-PPD) is a worldwide antioxidant commonly added to delay the thermo-oxidative degradation of tire rubbers. Unfortunately, 6PPD and its transformation product 6PPD-quinone are toxic to aquatic organisms (e.g., coho salmon). Herein, we explore the free radical scavenging activity and protective mechanism of melanin (MLN) on natural rubber's (NR's) oxidative resistance using molecular dynamics (MD) and quantum mechanical (QM) calculations. The relationship between the molecular structure and the chemical nature of the antioxidant molecules via transition state calculations is explored to unravel the reaction mechanisms of antioxidants interacting with peroxy radicals (ROO·) of NR with the estimation of reaction barriers. Following this, the radical scavenging activity of antioxidants was quantified via a hydrogen atom transfer mechanism and bond dissociation energy calculations. Parallel MD simulations were considered to study the interfacial interactions of antioxidant molecules with polymer chains and fillers with a quantifiable structure-property correlation. Given these results, the nanocomposite (NR-MLN-SiO2) with natural antioxidant melanin manifested outstanding antioxidant properties by preferentially bagging the ROO· radicals, thus improving NR's thermal-oxidative aging relative to 6-PPD. The MD results revealed that the intermolecular interactions at the NR/antioxidant interface benefited the antioxidant MLN to bind tightly to the NR in NR-MLN-SiO2 composite, thus exhibiting improved dispersion, O2 barrier properties, and thermo-oxidative stability, which could extend the service life of NR products (e.g., tires). In addition, as a sustainable antioxidant, MLN could replace toxic antioxidants like 6-PPD. More importantly, the QM/MD simulations provided a fundamental understanding of the mechanistic pathways of antioxidant molecules in NR composites, which are conducive to designing high-performance and sustainable green elastomers.

Phosphonium Ionic Liquid-Activated Sulfur Vulcanization: A Way Forward to Reduce Zinc Oxide Levels in Industrial Rubber Formulations

Extensive use of zinc oxide and accelerators such as diphenyl guanidine (DPG) in the vulcanization of rubber composites entail potential environmental risks. These are pervasive contaminants of roadway runoff originating from tire wear particles (TWPs). Herein, the effect of phosphonium ionic liquids (PILs) in styrene-butadiene rubber compounds was demonstrated with reduced ZnO loading and no DPG to minimize the environmental footprint of the vulcanization process. The structure and chemistry of PILs were found to be the influencing parameters impelling the cross-linking kinetics, enabling shorter induction times. The generation of active Zn²⁺ sites by PILs was examined through FTIR spectroscopy, calorimetry, and molecular dynamics simulations. From a tire application perspective, the PILs not only enhanced the cure kinetics but also improved the dynamic-mechanical behavior of the rubber composites. Consequently, the harm caused by TWPs to the atmosphere, fuel intake, and CO₂ emissions was minimal, thereby confirming the potential use of PILs in the tire industry.

Effect of Interfacial Interaction on the Demolding Deformation of Injection Molded Microfluidic Chips

During the demolding process, the interfacial interaction between the polymer and the metal mold insert will lead to the deformation of the micro-structure, which will directly affect the molding quality and performance of injection molded microfluidic chips. In this study, the demolding quality of micro-channels and micro-mixing structures of polycarbonate (PC), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), cyclic olefin copolymer (COC), and polystyrene (PS) microfluidic chips for heavy metal detection were investigated by molding experiments. The experimental results showed that the structures of microfluidic chips could be completely replicated. However, tensile deformation and fracture defects were observed at the edges of the micro-structures after demolding. Compared to the Ni mold insert, the calculation of the relative deviation percentages showed that the width of the micro-channel became larger and the depth became smaller, while the dimensions of the micro-mixing structure changes in the opposite direction. Subsequently, a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation model of polymer/nickel (Ni) mold insert for injection molding was established. The changes of adhesion work, demolding resistance and potential energy during demolding were analyzed. The simulation results showed that the polymer structures had some deformations such as necking, molecular chain stretching and voids under the action of adhesion work and demolding resistance. The difference in the contact area with the mold insert directly brought different interfacial interactions. In addition, the potential energy change of the polymer system could be used to quantitatively characterize the demolding deformation of the structure. Overall, the MD method is able to effectively explain the internal mechanisms of interfacial interactions, leading to the demolding deformation of polymer structures from the molecular/atomic scale.

Structural and Dynamical Properties of Liquids in Confinements: A Review of Molecular Dynamics Simulation Studies

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are a powerful tool for detailed studies of altered properties of liquids in confinement, in particular, of changed structures and dynamics. They allow, on one hand, for perfect control and systematic variation of the geometries and interactions inherent in confinement situations and, on the other hand, for type-selective and position-resolved analyses of a huge variety of structural and dynamical parameters. Here, we review MD simulation studies on various types of liquids and confinements. The main focus is confined aqueous systems, but also ionic liquids and polymer and silica melts are discussed. Results for confinements featuring different interactions, sizes, shapes, and rigidity will be presented. Special attention will be given to situations in which the confined liquid and the confining matrix consist of the same type of particles and, hence, disparate liquid-matrix interactions are absent. Findings for the magnitude and the range of wall effects on molecular positions and orientations and on molecular dynamics, including vibrational motion and structural relaxation, are reviewed. Moreover, their dependence on the parameters of the confinement and their relevance to theoretical approaches to the glass transition are addressed.

Potential Use of Chitosan-TiO2 Nanocomposites for the Electroanalytical Detection of Imidacloprid

The detection of toxic insecticides is a major scientific and technological challenge. In this regard, imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid that is a systemic insecticide that can accumulate in agricultural products and affect human health. This work aims to study the properties of chitosan–TiO₂ nanocomposites in which nanoparticles with high surface area serve as molecular recognition sites for electroanalytical imidacloprid detection. We show that the best sensitivity to imidacloprid was obtained using a modified electrode with a chitosan–TiO₂ nanocomposite with a 40 wt.% of TiO₂ nanoparticles. By using a three-phase effective permittivity model which includes chitosan, TiO₂, an interface layer between nanoparticles and a matrix, we showed that nanocomposites with 40 wt.% of TiO₂ the interface volume fraction reaches a maximum. At higher nanoparticle concentration, the sensitivity of the sensor decreases due to the decreasing of the interface volume fraction, agglomeration of nanoparticles and a decrease in their effective surface area. The methodology presented can be helpful in the design and optimization of polymer-based nanocomposites for a variety of applications.

Preparation of Natural Rubber Composites with High Silica Contents Using a Wet Mixing Process

A wet mixing process is proposed for filled rubber composites with a high silica loading to overcome the drawbacks of high energy consumption and workplace contamination of the conventional dry mixing process. Ball milling was adopted for preparing the silica dispersion because it has a simple structure, is easy to operate, and is a low-cost process that can be easily scaled up for industrial production. The response surface methodology was used to optimize the making of the silica dispersion. The optimum conditions for a well-dispersed silica suspension with the smallest silica particle size of 4.9 mm were an about 22% silica content and 62 h of ball milling. The effects of dry and wet mixing methods on the properties of silica-filled rubber composites were investigated in a broad range of silica levels from low to high loadings. The mixing method choice had little impact on the properties of rubber composites with low silica loadings. The silica-filled rubber demonstrated in this study, however, shows superior characteristics over the rubber composite prepared with conventional dry mixing, particularly with high silica loadings. When compared to silica-filled natural rubbers prepared by dry mixing (dry silica rubber, DSR), the wet mixing (for WSR) produced smaller silica aggregates with better dispersion. Due to the shorter heat history, the WSR exhibits superior curing characteristics such as a longer scorch time (2.2-3.3 min for WSR and 1.0-2.1 min for DSR) and curing time (4.1-4.5 min for WSR and 2.2-3.1 min for DSR). Additionally, the WSR has superior mechanical properties (hardness, modulus, tensile strength, and especially the elongation at break (420-680% for WSR and 360-620% DSR)) over the DSR. The rolling resistance of WSR is lower than that of DSR. However, the reversed trend on the wet skid resistance is observed.

Properties of Polysiloxane/Nanosilica Nanodielectrics for Wearable Electronic Devices

Polymer nanodielectrics characterized by good flexibility, processability, low dielectric loss and high dielectric permittivity are materials of interest for wearable electronic devices and intelligent textiles, and are highly in demand in robotics. In this study, an easily scalable and environmentally friendly method was applied to obtain polysiloxane/nanosilica nanocomposites with a large content of nanofiller, of up to 30% by weight. Nanosilica was dispersed both as individual particles and as agglomerates; in nanocomposites with a lower amount of filler, the former prevailed, and at over 20 wt% nanosilica the agglomerates predominated. An improvement of both the tensile strength and modulus was observed for nanocomposites with 5–15 wt% nanosilica, and a strong increase of the storage modulus was observed with the increase of nanofiller concentration. Furthermore, an increase of the storage modulus of up to seven times was observed in the nanocomposites with 30 wt% nanosilica. The tensile modulus was well fitted by models that consider the aggregation of nanoparticles and the role of the interface. The dielectric spectra showed an increase of the real part of the complex relative permittivity with 33% for 30 wt% nanosilica in nanocomposites at a frequency of 1 KHz, whereas the loss tangent values were lower than 0.02 for all tested nanodielectrics in the radio frequency range between 1 KHz and 1 MHz. The polysiloxane–nanosilica nanocomposites developed in this work showed good flexibility; however, they also showed increased stiffness along with a stronger dielectric response than the unfilled polysiloxane, which recommends them as dielectric substrates for wearable electronic devices.