Subcompartmentalized polymer hydrogel capsules with selectively degradable carriers and subunits

Multicompartment colloid systems with lipid and polymer membranes for biomedical applications

Multicompartment structures have the potential for biomedical applications because they can act as multifunctional systems and provide simultaneous delivery of drugs and diagnostics agents of different types. Moreover, some of them mimic biological cells to some extent with organelles as separate sub-compartments. This article analyses multicompartment colloidal structures with smaller sub-units covered with lipid or polymer membranes that provide additional protection for the encapsulated substances. Vesosomes with small vesicles encapsulated in the inner pools of larger liposomes are the most studied systems to date. Dendrimer molecules are enclosed by a lipid bilayer shell in dendrosomes. Capsosomes, polymersomes-in-polymer capsules, and cubosomes-in-polymer capsules are composed of sub-compartments encapsulated within closed multilayer polymer membranes. Janus or Cerberus emulsions contain droplets composed of two or three phases: immiscible oils in O/W emulsions and aqueous polymer or salt solutions that are separated into two or three phases and form connected droplets in W/O emulsions. In more cases, the external surface of engulfed droplets in Janus or Cerberus emulsions is covered with a lipid or polymer monolayer. eLiposomes with emulsion droplets encapsulated into a bilayer shell have been given little attention so far, but they have very great prospects. In addition to nanoemulsion droplets, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers and inorganic nanoparticles can be loaded into eLiposomes. Molecular engineering of the external membrane allows the creation of ligand-targeted and stimuli-responsive multifunctional systems. As a result, the efficacy of drug delivery can be significantly enhanced.

Marine-origin polysaccharides-based free-standing multilayered membranes as sustainable nanoreservoirs for controlled drug delivery

The layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly technology has been widely used to functionalise surfaces and precisely engineer robust multilayered bioarchitectures with tunable structures, compositions, properties, and functions at the nanoscale by resorting to a myriad of building blocks exhibiting complementary interactions. Among them, marine-origin polysaccharides are a sustainable renewable resource for the fabrication of nanostructured biomaterials for biomedical applications owing to their wide bioavailability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-cytotoxicity, and non-immunogenic properties. Chitosan (CHT) and alginate (ALG) have been widely employed as LbL ingredients to shape a wide repertoire of size- and shape-tunable electrostatic-driven multilayered assemblies by exploring their opposite charge nature. However, the insolubility of CHT in physiological conditions intrinsically limits the range of bioapplications of the as-developed CHT-based LbL structures. Herein, we report the preparation of free-standing (FS) multilayered membranes made of water-soluble quaternised CHT and ALG biopolymers for controlled release of model drug molecules. The influence of the film structure in the drug release rate is studied by assembling two distinct set-ups of FS membranes, having the model hydrophilic drug fluorescein isothiocyanate-labelled bovine serum albumin (FITC-BSA) either as an intrinsic building block or added as an outer layer after the LbL assembly process. Both FS membranes are characterised for their thickness, morphology, in vitro cytocompatibility, and release profile, with those having FITC-BSA as an intrinsic LbL ingredient denoting a more sustained release rate. This work opens up new avenues for the design and development of a wide array of CHT-based devices for biomedical applications, overcoming the limitations associated with the insolubility of native CHT under physiological conditions.

Bacterial Toxin-Triggered Release of Antibiotics from Capsosomes Protects a Fly Model from Lethal Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infection

Antibiotic resistance is a severe global health threat and hence demands rapid action to develop novel therapies, including microscale drug delivery systems. Herein, a hierarchical microparticle system is developed to achieve bacteria-activated single- and dual-antibiotic drug delivery for preventing methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacterial infections. The designed system is based on a capsosome structure, which consists of a mesoporous silica microparticle coated in alternating layers of oppositely charged polymers and antibiotic-loaded liposomes. The capsosomes are engineered and shown to release their drug payloads in the presence of MRSA toxins controlled by the Agr quorum sensing system. MRSA-activated single drug delivery of vancomycin and synergistic dual delivery of vancomycin together with an antibacterial peptide successfully kills MRSA in vitro. The capability of capsosomes to selectively deliver their cargo in the presence of bacteria, producing a bactericidal effect to protect the host organism, is confirmed in vivo using a Drosophila melanogaster MRSA infection model. Thus, the capsosomes serve as a versatile multidrug, subcompartmentalized microparticle system for preventing antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections, with potential applications to protect wounds or medical device implants from infections.

Current Perspectives on Synthetic Compartments for Biomedical Applications

Nano- and micrometer-sized compartments composed of synthetic polymers are designed to mimic spatial and temporal divisions found in nature. Self-assembly of polymers into compartments such as polymersomes, giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), layer-by-layer (LbL) capsules, capsosomes, or polyion complex vesicles (PICsomes) allows for the separation of defined environments from the exterior. These compartments can be further engineered through the incorporation of (bio)molecules within the lumen or into the membrane, while the membrane can be decorated with functional moieties to produce catalytic compartments with defined structures and functions. Nanometer-sized compartments are used for imaging, theranostic, and therapeutic applications as a more mechanically stable alternative to liposomes, and through the encapsulation of catalytic molecules, i.e., enzymes, catalytic compartments can localize and act in vivo. On the micrometer scale, such biohybrid systems are used to encapsulate model proteins and form multicompartmentalized structures through the combination of multiple compartments, reaching closer to the creation of artificial organelles and cells. Significant progress in therapeutic applications and modeling strategies has been achieved through both the creation of polymers with tailored properties and functionalizations and novel techniques for their assembly.

Multienzyme nanoassemblies: from rational design to biomedical applications

Multienzyme nanoassemblies (MENAs) that combine the functions of several enzymes into one entity have attracted widespread research interest due to their improved enzymatic performance and great potential for multiple applications. Considerable progress has been made to design and fabricate MENAs in recent years. This review begins with an introduction of the up-to-date strategies in designing MENAs, mainly including substrate channeling, compartmentalization and control of enzyme stoichiometry. The desirable properties that endow MENAs with important applications are also discussed in detail. Then, the recent advances in utilizing MENAs in the biomedical field are reviewed, with a particular focus on biosensing, tumor therapy, antioxidant and drug delivery. Finally, the challenges and perspectives for development of versatile MENAs are summarized.

Giant Polymer Compartments for Confined Reactions

In nature, various specific reactions only occur in spatially controlled environments. Cell compartment and subcompartments act as the support required to preserve the bio-specificity and functionality of the biological content, by affording absolute segregation. Inspired by this natural perfect behavior, bottom-up approaches are on focus to develop artificial cell-like structures, crucial for understanding relevant bioprocesses and interactions or to produce tailored solutions in the field of therapeutics and diagnostics. In this review, we discuss the benefits of constructing polymer-based single and multicompartments (capsules and giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs)), equipped with biomolecules as to mimic cells. In this respect, we outline key examples of how such structures have been designed from scratch, namely, starting from the application-oriented selection and synthesis of the amphiphilic block copolymer. We then present the state-of-the-art techniques for assembling the supramolecular structure while permitting the encapsulation of active compounds and the incorporation of peptides/membrane proteins, essential to support in situ reactions, e.g., to replicate intracellular signaling cascades. Finally, we briefly discuss important features that these compartments offer and how they could be applied to engineer the next generation of microreactors, therapeutic solutions, and cell models.

Biomolecule–polymer hybrid compartments: combining the best of both worlds

Recent advances in bio/polymer hybrid compartments in the quest to obtain artificial cells, biosensors and catalytic compartments.

Monodisperse Alginate Microcapsules with Spatially Confined Bioactive Molecules via Microfluid-Generated W/W/O Emulsions

A simple process is developed for the one-step preparation of dual-compartment alginate microcapsules with controlled size and structure from microfluid-generated water-in-water-in-oil (W/W/O) emulsion droplet. Unlike other methods that rely on transient W/W/O emulsion droplet, we introduce an aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) to form a stable W/W/O emulsion droplet as a template for preparing dual-compartment alginate microcapsules. Two different bioactive molecules are able to be spatially confined encapsulated in the shell and core of alginate microcapsules due to the partitioning effect of ATPS and the high viscosity of alginate solution. Moreover, an enzyme cascade reaction with a spatial confined glucose oxidase and horseradish peroxidase in the shell and core of alginate microcapsules confirms its excellent biocompatibility and high activity. This method provides a green platform for enzyme-catalyzed tandem reactions and controlled sequential release of multiple drugs based on alginate microcapsules.

Bioinspired multilayer membranes as potential adhesive patches for skin wound healing

Bioinspired and adhesive multilayer membranes are produced using the layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly of chitosan (CHT), alginate (ALG) and hyaluronic acid modified with dopamine (HA-DN). Freestanding multilayer membranes without DN are also produced as a control. The success of the synthesis of HA-DN was confirmed using UV-visible spectroscopy. Scanning electron microscopy images indicate that the surface of the DN-containing membranes is more porous than the control ones; they also present a higher average thickness value for the same number of CHT/ALG/CHT/HA(-DN) tetralayers (n = 100). Also, water uptake, mechanical strength and adhesion are enhanced with the introduction of DN moieties along the nano-layers. Besides, human dermal fibroblast viability, enhanced adhesion and proliferation were confirmed by immunofluorescence assays and by measuring both the metabolic activity and DNA content. Moreover, in vivo assays with such kinds of DN-containing multilayer membranes were performed; the application of these membranes in the treatment of dermal wounds induced in Wistar rats results in the highest decrease of inflammation of rat skin, compared with the control conditions. Overall, this investigation suggests that these mussel-inspired freestanding multilayer membranes may enhance either their mechanical performance or cellular adhesion and proliferation, leading to an improved wound healing process, being a promising material to restore the structural and functional properties of wounded skin.

Sequential intracellular release of water-soluble cargos from Shell-crosslinked polymersomes

Polymer vesicles, i.e. polymersomes (PS), present unique nanostructures with an interior aqueous core that can encapsulate multiple independent cargos concurrently. However, the sequential release of such co-loaded actives remains a challenge. Here, we report the rational design and synthesis of oxidation-responsive shell-crosslinked PS with capability for the controlled, sequential release of encapsulated hydrophilic molecules and hydrogels. Amphiphilic brush block copolymers poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate)-b-poly(oligo(propylene sulfide) methacrylate) (POEGMA-POPSMA) were prepared to fabricate PS via self-assembly in aqueous solution. As a type of unique drug delivery vehicle, the interior of the PS was co-loaded with hydrophilic molecules and water-soluble poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) conjugates. Due to the thermosensitivity of PNIPAM, PNIPAM conjugates within the PS aqueous interior underwent a phase transition to form hydrogels in situ when the temperature was raised above the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of PNIPAM. Via control of the overall shell permeability by oxidation, we realized the sequential release of two water-soluble payloads based on the assumption that hydrogels have much smaller membrane permeability than that of molecular cargos. The ability to control the timing of release of molecular dyes and PNIPAM-based hydrogels was also observed within live cells. Furthermore, leakage of hydrogels from the PS was effectively alleviated in comparison to molecular cargos, which would facilitate intracellular accumulation and prolonged retention of hydrogels within the cell cytoplasm. Thus, we demonstrate that the integration of responsive hydrogels into PS with crosslinkable membranes provides a facile and versatile technique to control the stability and release of water-soluble cargos for drug delivery purposes.

Poly(benzofuran-co-arylacetic acid) – a new type of highly functionalized polymers

A new type of polymer containing a number of functional groups with orthogonal reactivity, allowing linkage to several functionalities.

Probing cell internalisation mechanics with polymer capsules

We report polymer capsule-based probes for quantifying the pressure exerted by cells during capsule internalisation (P_in). Poly(methacrylic acid) (PMA) capsules with tuneable mechanical properties were fabricated through layer-by-layer assembly. The P_in was quantified by correlating the cell-induced deformation with the ex situ osmotically induced deformation of the polymer capsules. Ultimately, we found that human monocyte-derived macrophage THP-1 cells exerted up to approximately 360 kPa on the capsules during internalisation.

Degradable vinyl polymers for biomedical applications

Vinyl polymers have been the focus of intensive research over the past few decades and are attractive materials owing to their ease of synthesis and their broad diversity of architectures, compositions and functionalities. Their carbon-carbon backbones are extremely resistant to degradation, however, and this property limits their uses. Degradable polymers are an important field of research in polymer science and have been used in a wide range of applications spanning from (nano)medicine to microelectronics and environmental protection. The development of synthetic strategies to enable complete or partial degradation of vinyl polymers is, therefore, of great importance because it will offer new opportunities for the application of these materials. This Review captures the most recent and promising approaches to the design of degradable vinyl polymers and discusses the potential of these materials for biomedical applications.

Superhydrophobic Surfaces as a Tool for the Fabrication of Hierarchical Spherical Polymeric Carriers

Hierarchical polymeric carriers with high encapsulation efficiencies are fabricated via a biocompatible strategy developed using superhydrophobic (SH) surfaces. The carries are obtained by the incorporation of cell/BSA-loaded dextran-methacrylate (DEXT-MA) microparticles into alginate (ALG) macroscopic beads. Engineered devices like these are expected to boost the development of innovative and customizable systems for biomedical and biotechnological purposes.

Janus subcompartmentalized microreactors

We report on Janus subcompartmentalized assemblies with enzyme loaded liposomes entrapped within a polymer carrier capsule - Janus subcompartmentalized microreactors. The concept is based on the use of Pickering emulsions and the subsequent deposition of interacting liposomes and polymer layers. We demonstrate the adjustment of the size of the Janus domains and the control over the amount of trapped liposomes using multiple liposome deposition steps. The obtained Janus capsosomes feature a distinct liposome domain within a closed polymeric hydrogel shell. The assembly of functional Janus microreactors using trypsin as cargo within the liposomal subcompartments is shown by performing locally confined enzymatic encapsulated catalysis. The presented assemblies with spatial control over the position of their liposomal subunits are a fascinating first step towards artificial cells with polarity.

Cytocompatible in situ cross-linking of degradable LbL films based on thiol-exchange reaction

Formation of both mechanically durable and programmably degradable layer-by-layer (LbL) films in a biocompatible fashion has potential applications in cell therapy, tissue engineering, and drug-delivery systems, where the films are interfaced with living cells. In this work, we developed a simple but versatile method for generating in situ cross-linked and responsively degradable LbL films, based on the thiol-exchange reaction, under highly cytocompatible conditions (aqueous solution at pH 7.4 and room temperature). The cytocompatibility of the processes was confirmed by coating individual yeast cells with the cross-linked LbL films and breaking the films on demand, while maintaining the cell viability. In addition, the processes were applied to the controlled release of an anticancer drug in the HeLa cells.

Confined multiple enzymatic (cascade) reactions within poly(dopamine)-based capsosomes

The design of compartmentalized carriers as artificial cells is envisioned to be an efficient tool with potential applications in the biomedical field. The advent of this area has witnessed the assembly of functional, bioinspired systems attempting to tackle challenges in cell mimicry by encapsulating multiple compartments and performing controlled encapsulated enzymatic catalysis. Although capsosomes, which consist of liposomes embedded within a polymeric carrier capsule, are among the most advanced systems, they are still amazingly simple in their functionality and cumbersome in their assembly. We report on capsosomes by embedding liposomes within a poly(dopamine) (PDA) carrier shell created in a solution-based single-step procedure. We demonstrate for the first time the potential of PDA-based capsosomes to act as artificial cell mimics by performing a two-enzyme coupled reaction in parallel with a single-enzyme conversion by encapsulating three different enzymes into separated liposomal compartments. In the former case, the enzyme uricase converts uric acid into hydrogen peroxide, CO2 and allantoin, followed by the reaction of hydrogen peroxide with the reagent Amplex Ultra Red in the presence of the enzyme horseradish peroxidase to generate the fluorescent product resorufin. The parallel enzymatic catalysis employs the enzyme ascorbate oxidase to convert ascorbic acid into 2-L-dehydroascorbic acid.

Liposome-containing polymer films and colloidal assemblies towards biomedical applications

Liposomes are important components for biomedical applications. Their unique architecture and versatile nature have made them useful carriers for the delivery of therapeutic cargo. The scope of this minireview is to highlight recent developments of biomimetic liposome-based multicompartmentalized assemblies of polymer thin films and colloidal carriers, and to outline a selection of recent applications of these materials in bionanotechnology.

Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)/poly(dopamine) capsules

Polymer capsules are an interesting concept considered in nanobiotechnology. Approaches that facilitate their assembly remain sought after. Poly(dopamine) (PDA) has been considered and successfully applied in this context. We recently demonstrated that PDA could be copolymerized with different types of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNiPAAm) to assemble mixed films on planar substrates. Herein, we transferred this approach onto colloidal substrates and characterized the film thickness depending on the film composition and template particles size. While the membrane of capsules assembled using 5 μm template particles exhibited strong dependency on the film composition, smaller templates led to capsules with similar membrane thickness. We then compared the permeability of different capsules using fluorescently labeled dextran and fluorescein. We found that the permeability of capsules was heavily dependent on the polymer composition and the template particle size. These fundamental findings contribute to the potential of these capsules, assembled in one-step, for biomedical applications.

Advanced subcompartmentalized microreactors: polymer hydrogel carriers encapsulating polymer capsules and liposomes

The design of compartmentalized carriers for advanced drug delivery systems or artificial cells and organelles is of interest for biomedical applications. Herein, a polymer carrier microreactor that contains two different classes of subcompartments, multilayered polymer capsules and liposomes, is presented. 50 nm-diameter liposomes and 300 nm-diameter polymer capsules are encapsulated into a larger polymer carrier capsule, demonstrating control over the spatial positioning of the subcompartments, which are either 'membrane-associated' or 'free-floating' in the aqueous interior. Selective and spatially dependent degradation of the 300 nm-diameter subcompartments (without destroying the structural integrity of the enzyme-loaded liposomes) is also shown, by performing an encapsulated enzymatic reaction using the liposomal subcompartments. These findings cover several important aspects toward the development of engineered compartmentalized carrier vessels for the creation of artificial cell mimics or advanced therapeutic delivery systems.

Layer-by-layer polyelectrolyte-polyester hybrid microcapsules for encapsulation and delivery of hydrophobic drugs

A two-step process is developed to form layer-by-layer (LbL) polyelectrolyte microcapsules, which are able to encapsulate and deliver hydrophobic drugs. Spherical porous calcium carbonate (CaCO3) microparticles were used as templates and coated with a poly(lactic acid-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) layer containing hydrophobic compounds via an in situ precipitation gelling process. PLGA layers that precipitated from N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) had a lower loading and smoother surface than those precipitated from acetone. The difference may be due to different viscosities and solvent exchange dynamics. In the second step, the successful coating of multilayer polyelectrolytes poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) onto the PLGA coated CaCO3 microparticles was confirmed with AFM and ζ-potential studies. The release of a model hydrophobic drug, ibuprofen, from these hybrid microcapsules with different numbers of PAH/PSS layers was investigated. It was found that the release of ibuprofen decreases with increasing layer numbers demonstrating the possibility to control the release of ibuprofen with these novel hybrid microcapsules. Besides loading of hydrophobic drugs, the interior of these microcapsules can also be loaded with hydrophilic compounds and functional nanoparticles as demonstrated by loading with Fe3O4 nanoparticles, forming magnetically responsive dual drug releasing carriers.

Shape-dependent cellular processing of polyelectrolyte capsules

Particle shape is emerging as a key design parameter for tailoring the interactions between particles and cells. Herein, we report the preparation of rod-shaped layer-by-layer (LbL)-assembled polymer hydrogel capsules with tunable aspect ratios (ARs). By templating spherical and rodlike silica particles, disulfide-stabilized poly(methacrylic acid) hydrogel capsules (PMA HCs) with different ARs (from 1 to 4) are generated. The influence of capsule AR on cellular internalization and intracellular fate was quantitatively investigated by flow cytometry, imaging flow cytometry, and fluorescence deconvolution microscopy. These experiments reveal that the cellular internalization kinetics of PMA HCs are dependent on the AR, with spherical capsules being internalized more rapidly and to a greater extent compared with rod-shaped capsules. In contrast, the capsules with different ARs are colocalized with the lysosomal marker LAMP1, suggesting that the lysosomal compartmentalization is independent of shape for these soft polymer capsules.

Cholesterol--a biological compound as a building block in bionanotechnology

Cholesterol is a molecule with many tasks in nature but also a long history in science. This feature article highlights the contribution of this small compound to bionanotechnology. We discuss relevant chemical aspects in this context followed by an overview of its self-assembly capabilities both as a free molecule and when conjugated to a polymer. Further, cholesterol in the context of liposomes is reviewed and its impact ranging from biosensing to drug delivery is outlined. Cholesterol is and will be an indispensable player in bionanotechnology, contributing to the progress of this potent field of research.

Controlled enzyme-catalyzed degradation of polymeric capsules templated on CaCO₃: influence of the number of LbL layers, conditions of degradation, and disassembly of multicompartments

Enzyme-catalyzed degradation of CaCO₃-templated capsules is presented. We investigate a) biodegradable, b) mixed biodegradable/synthetic, and c) multicompartment polyelectrolyte multilayer capsules with different numbers of polymer layers. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy we observed the kinetics of the non-specific protease Pronase-induced degradation of capsules is slowed down on the order of hours by either increasing the number of layers in the wall of biodegradable capsules, or by inserting synthetic polyelectrolyte multilayers into the shell comprised of biodegradable polymers. The degradation rate increases with the concentration of Pronase. Controlled detachment of subcompartments of multicompartment capsules, with potential for intracellular delivery or in-vivo applications, is also shown.

Macromolecule functionalization of disulfide-bonded polymer hydrogel capsules and cancer cell targeting

We present a generic and versatile method for functionalization of disulfide-stabilized PMA hydrogel capsules (HCs) with macromolecules, including a number of specific antibodies to cancer cells. Functionalization was achieved by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization of poly(N-vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVPON), which introduced biorelevant heterotelechelic end groups (thiol and amine) to the polymer chain. The PVPON with heterotelechelic end groups was conjugated to the outermost layer of PMA HCs through the thiol groups and reacted with biotin via the amine groups to generate PMA/PVPON(biotin) HCs. On the basis of the high specific interaction and high affinity between biotin and avidin, and its derivates, such as NeutrAvidin (NAv), we functionalized the PMA HCs with biotinylated antibodies. We demonstrate significantly enhanced cellular binding and internalization of the antibody (Ab)-functionalized capsules compared with control human immunoglobulin (IgG)-functionalized capsules, suggesting these capsules can specifically interact with cells through antibody/antigen recognition. We anticipate that the versatility of the functionalization approach reported in this study will assist in targeted therapeutic delivery applications.

Triggered cargo release by encapsulated enzymatic catalysis in capsosomes

We report the coencapsulation of glutathione reductase and disulfide-linked polymer-oligopeptide conjugates into capsosomes, polymer carrier capsules containing liposomal subcompartments. The architecture of the capsosomes enables a temperature-triggered conversion of oxidized glutathione to its reduced sulfhydryl form by the encapsulated glutathione reductase. The reduced glutathione subsequently induces the release of the encapsulated oligopeptides from the capsosomes by reducing the disulfide linkages of the conjugates. This study highlights the potential of capsosomes to continuously generate a potent antioxidant while simultaneously releasing small molecule therapeutics.

Polymersome-loaded capsules for controlled release of DNA

The formation of a novel drug-delivery carrier for the controlled release of plasmid DNA that comprises layer-by-layer polymer capsules subcompartmentalized with pH-sensitive nanometer-sized polymersomes is reported. The amphiphilic diblock copolymer poly(oligoethylene glycol methacrylate)-block-poly(2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate) forms polymersomes at physiological pH, but transitions to unimeric polymer chains upon acidification to cellular endocytic pH. These polymersomes can thus release an encapsulated payload in response to a change in pH from physiological to endocytic conditions. Multicomponent layer-by-layer capsules are formed by exploiting the ability of tannic acid to act as an efficient hydrogen-bond donor for both the polymersomes and poly(N-vinyl pyrrolidone) at physiological pH. These capsules show release of a plasmid DNA payload encapsulated within the polymersome subcompartments in response to changes in pH between physiological and endocytic conditions.

Tuning the permeability of polymer hydrogel capsules: an investigation of cross-linking density, membrane thickness, and cross-linkers

Nanoengineered poly(methacrylic acid) hydrogel capsules (PMA HCs) are promising candidate carriers for biomedical applications, especially in the areas of drug delivery, encapsulated catalysis, and cell mimicry. The assembly, stability, and degradation of these carriers, as well as their use for the encapsulation of therapeutics, have received considerable attention. However, tailoring the permeability properties of PMA HCs to various types of cargo remains largely unexplored. Herein, we investigate fundamental parameters that govern the structural integrity and the capability of PMA HCs to encapsulate macromolecular cargo. The thiol content of the constituent polymers and the number of deposited polymer layers are shown to be key factors in controlling cargo retention within the PMA HCs. We further introduce a new strategy to achieve disulfide cross-linking for PMA HCs via a thiol-disulfide exchange in order to obtain capsules with superior cargo retention characteristics. Finally, we provide evidence for the semipermeable nature of PMA HCs based on the charge of the solutes and demonstrate that rational design of these systems can yield capsules with specific cargo retention properties. This work contributes toward the development of multilayered polymer capsules and PMA HCs and associated applications in biomedicine.

Modular assembly of layer-by-layer capsules with tailored degradation profiles

Herein we report the preparation of layer-by-layer (LbL) assembled, biodegradable, covalently stabilized capsules with tunable degradation properties. Poly(L-glutamic acid) modified with alkyne moieties (PGA(Alk)) was alternately assembled with poly(N-vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVPON) on silica particles via hydrogen-bonding. The films were cross-linked with a bis-azide linker, followed by removal of the sacrificial template and PVPON at physiological pH through hydrogen bond disruption, yielding one-component PGA(Alk) capsules. To control the kinetics and location of capsule degradation, a number of approaches were investigated. First, a degradable bis-azide cross-linker was incorporated into the inherently enzymatically degradable capsules. Second, we assembled low-fouling capsules composed of nondegradable poly(N-vinyl pyrrolidone-ran-propargyl acrylate) (PVPON(Alk)) via hydrogen bonding with poly(methacrylic acid) (PMA) and combined this with the aforementioned system (PGA(Alk)/PVPON) to produce stratified hybrid capsules. The degradation profiles of these stratified capsules can be closely controlled by the number as well as the position of nondegradable barrier layers in the systems. The facile tailoring of the degradation kinetics makes this stratified LbL approach promising for the design of tailored drug-delivery vehicles.