Cancer Immunotherapy Elicited by Immunogenic Cell Death Based on Smart Nanomaterials

Quinoidal Semiconductor Nanoparticles for NIR-II Photoacoustic Imaging and Photoimmunotherapy of Cancer

Photoagents with ultra-high near-infrared II (NIR-II) light energy conversion efficiency hold great promise in tumor phototherapy due to their ability to penetrate deeper tissues and minimize damage to surrounding healthy cells. However, the development of NIR-II photoagents remain challenging. In this study, an all-fused-ring quinoidal acceptor-donor-acceptor (A-D-A) molecule, SKCN, with a BTP core is synthesized, and nanoparticles named FA-SNPs are prepared. The unique quinoidal structure enhances π-electron delocalization and bond length uniformity, significantly reducing the bandgap of SKCN, resulting in strong NIR-II absorption, a high molar extinction coefficient, and a photothermal conversion efficiency of 75.14%. Enhanced molecular rigidity also facilitates efficient energy transfer to oxygen, boosting reactive oxygen species generation. By incorporating the immunomodulator R848, FA-SRNPs nanoparticles are further developed, effectively modulating the tumor immune microenvironment by reducing Tregs and M-MDSCs infiltration, promoting dendritic cell maturation, M1 macrophage polarization, and activating CD8+ T cells and NK cells. Comprehensive studies using orthotopic ovarian cancer models demonstrated strong tumor targeting, photoacoustic imaging capabilities, and significant tumor suppression and metastasis inhibition, and also showing excellent therapeutic efficacy in an orthotopic breast cancer model. This study provides strong evidence for the potential application of quinoidal A-D-A molecules in cancer photoimmunotherapy.

Reshaped Local and Systemic Immune Responses Triggered by a Biomimetic Multifunctional Nanoplatform Coordinating Multi-Pathways for Cancer Therapy

Immunotherapy has fundamentally transformed the clinical cancer treatment landscape; however, achieving intricate and multifaceted modulation of the immune systems remains challenging. Here, a multipathway coordination of immunogenic cell death (ICD), autophagy, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-1 (IDO1) was achieved by a biomimetic nano-immunomodulator assembled from a chemotherapeutic agent (doxorubicin, DOX), small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules targeting IDO1 (siIDO1), and the zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8). After being camouflaged with a macrophage membrane, the biomimetic nanosystem, named mRDZ, enriched in tumors, which allowed synergistic actions of its components within tumor cells. The chemotherapeutic intervention led to a compensatory upregulation in the expression of IDO1, consequently exerting an inhibitory effect on the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and autophagic responses triggered by DOX and ZIF-8. Precise gene silencing of IDO1 by siIDO1 alleviated its suppressive influence, thereby facilitating increased ROS production and improved autophagy, ultimately bolstering tumor immunogenicity. mRDZ exhibited strong capability to boost potent local and systemic antitumor immune responses with a feature of memory, which led to the effective suppression of the growth, lung metastasis, and recurrence of the tumor. Serving as an exemplary model for the straightforward and potent reshaping of the immune system against tumors, mRDZ offers valuable insights into the development of immunomodulatory nanomaterials for cancer therapy.

Vacancy-Rich Bismuth-Based Nanosheets for Mitochondrial Destruction via CO Poisoning, Ca2+ Dyshomeostasis, and Oxidative Damage

Mitochondria are core regulators of tumor cell homeostasis, and their damage has become an arresting therapeutic modality against cancer. Despite the development of many mitochondrial-targeted pharmaceutical agents, the exploration of more powerful and multifunctional medications is still underway. Herein, oxygen vacancy-rich BiO2-x wrapped with CaCO3 (named BiO2-x@CaCO3/PEG, BCP) is developed for full-fledged attack on mitochondrial function. After endocytosis of BCP by tumor cells, the CaCO3 shell can be decomposed in the acidic lysosomal compartment, leading to immediate Ca2+ release and CO2 production in the cytoplasm. Near-infrared irradiation enhances the adsorption of CO2 onto BiO2-x defects, which enables highly efficient photocatalysis of CO2-to-CO. Meanwhile, such BiO2-x nanosheets possess catalase-, peroxidase- and oxidase-like catalytic activities under acidic pH conditions, allowing hypoxia relief and the accumulation of diverse reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the tumor microenvironment. Ca2+ overload-induced ion dyshomeostasis, CO-mediated respiratory chain poisoning, ROS-triggered oxidative stress aggravation, and cytosolic hyperoxia can cause severe mitochondrial disorders, which further lead to type I cell death in carcinoma. Not only does BCP cause irreversible apoptosis, but immunogenic cell death is simultaneously triggered to activate antitumor immunity for metastasis inhibition. Collectively, this platform promises high benefits in malignant tumor therapy and may expand the medical applications of bismuth-based nanoagents.

Multi-functional nanomedicines for combinational cancer immunotherapy that transform cold tumors to hot tumors

INTRODUCTION

Currently, cancer immunotherapy is widely used as a groundbreaking method that can completely cure advanced cancers. However, this new immunotherapy has the challenge of low patient response, which is often due to many patients' tumors having an immunosuppressive environment, known as cold tumors.

AREAS COVERED

This review aims to introduce various nanomedicine-derived combinational cancer immunotherapy that can transform cold tumor into hot tumors. Initially, we discuss new technologies for combinational immunotherapy based on multifunctional nanomedicines that can deliver combinational immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducers, immune checkpoint blockades (ICBs) and immune modulators (IMs) to targeted tumor tissues at the same time. Ultimately, we highlight how multifunctional nanomedicines for combinational cancer immunotherapy can be used to transform cold tumor into hot tumors against advanced cancers.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanomedicine-derived combinational cancer immunotherapy for delivering multiple ICD inducers, ICBs, and IMs at the same time is recognized as a new potential technology that can activate tumor immunity and simultaneously increase the therapeutic efficacy of immune cells that can transform effectively the cold tumors into hot tumors. Finally, nanomedicine-derived combinational cancer immunotherapy can solve the serious problems of low therapeutic efficacy that occurs when treating single drug or simple combinational drugs in cancer immunotherapy.

Mitochondrial Disruption Nanosystem Simultaneously Depressed Programmed Death Ligand-1 and Transforming Growth Factor-β to Overcome Photodynamic Immunotherapy Resistance

Currently, limited photosensitizers possess the capacity to reverse tumor hypoxia and reduce programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) expression simultaneously, hindering the perfect photodynamic therapy (PDT) effect due to acquired immune resistance and the tumor hypoxic microenvironment. To tackle these challenges, in this research, we demonstrated that mitochondrial energy metabolism depression can be utilized as an innovative and efficient approach for reducing the expression of PD-L1 and TGF-β simultaneously, which may offer a design strategy for a more ideal PDT nanosystem. Through proteomic analysis of 5637 cells, we revealed that tamoxifen (TMX) can incredibly regulate PD-L1 expression in tumor cells. Then, to selectively deliver clinically used mitochondrial energy metabolism depressant TMX to solid tumors as well as design an ideal PDT nanosystem, we synthesized MHI-TMX@ALB by combining a mitochondria-targeted heptamethine cyanine PDT-dye MHI with TMX through self-assembly with albumin (ALB). Interestingly enough, the MHI-TMX@ALB nanoparticle demonstrated effective reversion of tumor hypoxia and inhibition of PD-L1 protein expression at a lower dosage (7.5 times to TMX), which then enhanced the efficacy of photodynamic immunotherapy via enhancing T-cell infiltration. Apart from this, by leveraging the heptamethine dye's targeting capacity toward tumors and TMX's role in suppressing TGF-β, MHI-TMX@ALB also more effectively mitigated 4T1 tumor lung metastasis development. All in all, the MHI-TMX@ALB nanoparticle could be used as a multifunctional economical PD-L1 and TGF-β codepression immune-regulating strategy, broadening the potential clinical applications for a more ideal PDT nanosystem.

Cathepsin B Responsive Peptide-Purpurin Conjugates Assembly-Initiated in Situ Self-Aggregation for Cancer Sonotheranostics

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) was hampered by the sonosensitizers with low bioavailability, tumor accumulation, and therapeutic efficiency. In situ responsive sonosensitizer self-assembly strategy may provide a promising route for cancer sonotheranositics. Herein, an intelligent sonotheranostic peptide-purpurin conjugate (P18-P) is developed that can self-assemble into supramolecular structures via self-aggregation triggered by rich enzyme cathepsin B (CTSB). After intravenous injection, the versatile probe could achieve deep tissue penetration because of the penetration sequence of P18-P. More importantly, CTSB-triggered self-assembly strongly prolonged retention time, amplified photoacoustic imaging signal for sensitive CTSB detection, and boosted reactive oxygen species for advanced SDT, evoking specific CTSB responsive sonotheranostics. This peptide-purpurin conjugate may serve as an efficient sonotheranostic platform for the early diagnosis of CTSB activity and effective cancer therapy.

Long-Acting Nanohybrid Hydrogel Induces Persistent Immunogenic Chemotherapy for Suppressing Postoperative Tumor Recurrence and Metastasis

Despite the continuous advancement of surgical resection techniques, postoperative tumor recurrence and metastasis remain a huge challenge. Here, we constructed an injectable curcumin/doxorubicin-loaded nanoparticle (NanoCD) hydrogel, which could effectively inhibit tumor regrowth and metastasis via reshaping the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) for highly effective postsurgical cancer treatment. NanoCD was prepared by the controlled assembly of curcumin (CUR) and doxorubicin (DOX) via π-π stacking and hydrogen bonding in the presence of human serum albumin. To facilitate prolonged treatment of postsurgical tumors, NanoCD was further incorporated into the temperature-sensitive Poloxamer 407 gel (NanoCD@Gel) for intracavity administration. Mechanistically, DOX induced the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and CUR reduced the ROS metabolism by inhibiting thioredoxin reductase (TrxR). The synergy of DOX and CUR amplified intracellular ROS levels and thus resulted in enhanced immunogenic cell death (ICD) of tumor cells. Upon being injected into the tumor cavity after resection, the in situ-generated NanoCD@Gel allowed the local release of CUR and DOX in a controlled manner to induce local chemotherapy and persistently activate the antitumor immune response, thereby achieving enhanced immunogenic chemotherapy with reduced systemic toxicity. Our work provides an elegant strategy for persistently stimulating effective antitumor immunity to prevent postsurgical tumor recurrence and metastasis.

Immunotherapy: cancer immunotherapy and its combination with nanomaterials and other therapies

Immunotherapy is a new type of tumor treatment after surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, and can be used to manage and destroy tumor cells through activating or strengthening the immune response. Immunotherapy has the benefits of a low recurrence rate and high specificity compared to traditional treatment methods. Immunotherapy has developed rapidly in recent years and has become a research hotspot. Currently, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell immunotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors are the most effective tumor immunotherapies in clinical practice. While tumor immunotherapy brings hope to patients, it also faces some challenges and still requires continuous research and progress. Combination therapy is the future direction of anti-tumor treatment. In this review, the main focus is on an overview of the research progress of immune checkpoint inhibitors, cellular therapies, tumor vaccines, small molecule inhibitors and oncolytic virotherapy in tumor treatment, as well as the combination of immunotherapy with other treatments.