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Keshri R, Detraux D, Phal A, McCurdy C, Jhajharia S, Chan TC, Mathieu J, Ruohola-Baker H. Next-generation direct reprogramming. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024; 12:1343106. [PMID: 38371924 PMCID: PMC10869521 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2024.1343106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Tissue repair is significantly compromised in the aging human body resulting in critical disease conditions (such as myocardial infarction or Alzheimer's disease) and imposing a tremendous burden on global health. Reprogramming approaches (partial or direct reprogramming) are considered fruitful in addressing this unmet medical need. However, the efficacy, cellular maturity and specific targeting are still major challenges of direct reprogramming. Here we describe novel approaches in direct reprogramming that address these challenges. Extracellular signaling pathways (Receptor tyrosine kinases, RTK and Receptor Serine/Theronine Kinase, RSTK) and epigenetic marks remain central in rewiring the cellular program to determine the cell fate. We propose that modern protein design technologies (AI-designed minibinders regulating RTKs/RSTK, epigenetic enzymes, or pioneer factors) have potential to solve the aforementioned challenges. An efficient transdifferentiation/direct reprogramming may in the future provide molecular strategies to collectively reduce aging, fibrosis, and degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riya Keshri
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Damien Detraux
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Ashish Phal
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Clara McCurdy
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Samriddhi Jhajharia
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Tung Ching Chan
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Julie Mathieu
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Hannele Ruohola-Baker
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
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Qabrati X, Kim I, Ghosh A, Bundschuh N, Noé F, Palmer AS, Bar-Nur O. Transgene-free direct conversion of murine fibroblasts into functional muscle stem cells. NPJ Regen Med 2023; 8:43. [PMID: 37553383 PMCID: PMC10409758 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-023-00317-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcription factor-based cellular reprogramming provides an attractive approach to produce desired cell types for regenerative medicine purposes. Such cellular conversions are widely dependent on viral vectors to efficiently deliver and express defined factors in target cells. However, use of viral vectors is associated with unfavorable genomic integrations that can trigger deleterious molecular consequences, rendering this method a potential impediment to clinical applications. Here, we report on a highly efficient transgene-free approach to directly convert mouse fibroblasts into induced myogenic progenitor cells (iMPCs) by overexpression of synthetic MyoD-mRNA in concert with an enhanced small molecule cocktail. First, we performed a candidate compound screen and identified two molecules that enhance fibroblast reprogramming into iMPCs by suppression of the JNK and JAK/STAT pathways. Simultaneously, we developed an optimal transfection protocol to transiently overexpress synthetic MyoD-mRNA in fibroblasts. Combining these two techniques enabled robust and rapid reprogramming of fibroblasts into Pax7 positive iMPCs in as little as 10 days. Nascent transgene-free iMPCs proliferated extensively in vitro, expressed a suite of myogenic stem cell markers, and could differentiate into highly multinucleated and contractile myotubes. Furthermore, using global and single-cell transcriptome assays, we delineated gene expression changes associated with JNK and JAK/STAT pathway inhibition during reprogramming, and identified in iMPCs a Pax7+ stem cell subpopulation resembling satellite cells. Last, transgene-free iMPCs robustly engrafted skeletal muscles of a Duchenne muscular dystrophy mouse model, restoring dystrophin expression in hundreds of myofibers. In summary, this study reports on an improved and clinically safer approach to convert fibroblasts into myogenic stem cells that can efficiently contribute to muscle regeneration in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xhem Qabrati
- Laboratory of Regenerative and Movement Biology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
| | - Inseon Kim
- Laboratory of Regenerative and Movement Biology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
| | - Adhideb Ghosh
- Laboratory of Regenerative and Movement Biology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicola Bundschuh
- Laboratory of Regenerative and Movement Biology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
| | - Falko Noé
- Laboratory of Regenerative and Movement Biology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich, ETH Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrew S Palmer
- Laboratory of Regenerative and Movement Biology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Footscray, VIC, Australia
| | - Ori Bar-Nur
- Laboratory of Regenerative and Movement Biology, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland.
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Goat MyoD1: mRNA expression, InDel and CNV detection and their associations with growth traits. Gene 2023; 866:147348. [PMID: 36898510 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2023.147348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
The Myogenic differentiation 1 (MyoD1) gene is a crucial regulator of muscle formation and differentiation. However, there are few studies on the mRNA expression pattern of the goat MyoD1 gene and its effect on goat growth and development. To address this, we investigated the mRNA expression of the MyoD1 gene in several tissues of fetal and adult goats, containing heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney and skeletal muscle. The results focused on the expression of the MyoD1 gene in skeletal muscle of fetal goats was much higher than adult goats, suggesting its important role in skeletal muscle formation and development. Following, a total of 619 Shaanbei White Cashmere goats (SBWCs) were used to monitor the InDel (Insertion/Deletion) and CNV (Copy Number Variation) variations of the MyoD1 gene. Three InDel loci were identified, and there was no significant correlation with goat growth traits. Furthermore, a CNV locus containing the MyoD1 gene exon with three types (Loss type, Normal type, Gain type) were identified. The association analysis results showed that the CNV locus was significantly associated with body weight, height at hip cross, heart girth and hip width in SBWCs (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, the Gain type of CNV exhibited the best growth traits and good consistency among three types in goats, suggesting its potential as a DNA marker for marker-assisted breeding of goats. Overall, our study provided a scientific basis for breeding goats with better growth and development traits.
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Hu Y, Pan X, Shi Y, Qiu Y, Wang L, Murawala P, Liu Y, Xing W, Tanaka EM, Fei JF. Muscles are barely required for the patterning and cell dynamics in axolotl limb regeneration. Front Genet 2022; 13:1036641. [PMID: 36299593 PMCID: PMC9589296 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.1036641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Regeneration of a complex appendage structure such as limb requires upstream and downstream coordination of multiple types of cells. Given type of cell may sit at higher upstream position to control the activities of other cells. Muscles are one of the major cell masses in limbs. However, the subtle functional relationship between muscle and other cells in vertebrate complex tissue regeneration are still not well established. Here, we use Pax7 mutant axolotls, in which the limb muscle is developmentally lost, to investigate limb regeneration in the absence of skeletal muscle. We find that the pattern of regenerated limbs is relative normal in Pax7 mutants compared to the controls, but the joint is malformed in the Pax7 mutants. Lack of muscles do not affect the early regeneration responses, specifically the recruitment of macrophages to the wound, as well as the proliferation of fibroblasts, another major population in limbs. Furthermore, using single cell RNA-sequencing, we show that, other than muscle lineage that is mostly missing in Pax7 mutants, the composition and the status of other cell types in completely regenerated limbs of Pax7 mutants are similar to that in the controls. Our study reveals skeletal muscle is barely required for the guidance of other cells, as well the patterning in complex tissue regeneration in axolotls, and provides refined views of the roles of muscle cell in vertebrate appendage regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Hu
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Xiangyu Pan
- Department of Medical Research, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yu Shi
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuanhui Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Liqun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Prayag Murawala
- MDI Biological Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, United States
- Clinic for Kidney and Hypertension Diseases, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Yanmei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wanjin Xing
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
- *Correspondence: Wanjin Xing, ; Elly M. Tanaka, ; Ji-Feng Fei,
| | - Elly M. Tanaka
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Vienna BioCenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Wanjin Xing, ; Elly M. Tanaka, ; Ji-Feng Fei,
| | - Ji-Feng Fei
- Department of Pathology, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Wanjin Xing, ; Elly M. Tanaka, ; Ji-Feng Fei,
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Barthélémy F, Santoso JW, Rabichow L, Jin R, Little I, Nelson SF, McCain ML, Miceli MC. Modeling Patient-Specific Muscular Dystrophy Phenotypes and Therapeutic Responses in Reprogrammed Myotubes Engineered on Micromolded Gelatin Hydrogels. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:830415. [PMID: 35465312 PMCID: PMC9020228 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.830415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro models of patient-derived muscle allow for more efficient development of genetic medicines for the muscular dystrophies, which often present mutation-specific pathologies. One popular strategy to generate patient-specific myotubes involves reprogramming dermal fibroblasts to a muscle lineage through MyoD induction. However, creating physiologically relevant, reproducible tissues exhibiting multinucleated, aligned myotubes with organized striations is dependent on the introduction of physicochemical cues that mimic the native muscle microenvironment. Here, we engineered patient-specific control and dystrophic muscle tissues in vitro by culturing and differentiating MyoD–directly reprogrammed fibroblasts isolated from one healthy control subject, three patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), and two Limb Girdle 2A/R1 (LGMD2A/R1) patients on micromolded gelatin hydrogels. Engineered DMD and LGMD2A/R1 tissues demonstrated varying levels of defects in α-actinin expression and organization relative to control, depending on the mutation. In genetically relevant DMD tissues amenable to mRNA reframing by targeting exon 44 or 45 exclusion, exposure to exon skipping antisense oligonucleotides modestly increased myotube coverage and alignment and rescued dystrophin protein expression. These findings highlight the value of engineered culture substrates in guiding the organization of reprogrammed patient fibroblasts into aligned muscle tissues, thereby extending their value as tools for exploration and dissection of the cellular and molecular basis of genetic muscle defects, rescue, and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Barthélémy
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Center for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jeffrey W. Santoso
- Laboratory for Living Systems Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, USC Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Laura Rabichow
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Center for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Rongcheng Jin
- Laboratory for Living Systems Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, USC Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Isaiah Little
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Center for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Stanley F. Nelson
- Center for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Megan L. McCain
- Laboratory for Living Systems Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, USC Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Keck School of Medicine of USC, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: M. Carrie Miceli, ; Megan L. McCain,
| | - M. Carrie Miceli
- Department of Microbiology Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Center for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: M. Carrie Miceli, ; Megan L. McCain,
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Jiang Y, Torun T, Maffioletti SM, Serio A, Tedesco FS. Bioengineering human skeletal muscle models: Recent advances, current challenges and future perspectives. Exp Cell Res 2022; 416:113133. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2022.113133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Han JK, Shin Y, Kim HS. Direct Conversion of Cell Fate and Induced Endothelial Cells. Circ J 2021; 86:1925-1933. [PMID: 34732599 DOI: 10.1253/circj.cj-21-0703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Advances in nuclear reprogramming technology have enabled the dedifferentiation and transdifferentiation of mammalian cells. Forced induction of the key transcription factors constituting a transcriptional network can convert cells back to their pluripotent status or directly to another cell fate without inducing pluripotency. To date, direct conversion to several cell types, including cardiomyocytes, various types of neurons, and pancreatic β-cells, has been reported. We previously demonstrated direct lineage reprogramming of adult fibroblasts into induced endothelial cells (iECs) in mice and humans. In contrast to induced pluripotent stem cells, for which there is consensus on the criteria defining pluripotency, such criteria have not yet been established in the field of direct conversion. We thus suggest that careful assessment of the status of converted cells using genetic and epigenetic profiling, various functional assays, and the use of multiple readouts is essential to determine successful conversion. As direct conversion does not go through pluripotent status, this technique can be utilized for therapeutic purposes without the risk of tumorigenesis. Further, direct conversion can be induced in vivo by gene delivery to the target tissue or organ in situ. Thus, direct conversion technology can be developed into cell therapy or gene therapy for regenerative purposes. Here, we review the potential and future directions of direct cell fate conversion and iECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Kyu Han
- Department of Internal Medicine, and Strategic Center of Cell and Bio Therapy for Heart, Diabetes and Cancer, Seoul National University Hospital
| | - Youngchul Shin
- Department of Internal Medicine, and Strategic Center of Cell and Bio Therapy for Heart, Diabetes and Cancer, Seoul National University Hospital
| | - Hyo-Soo Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, and Strategic Center of Cell and Bio Therapy for Heart, Diabetes and Cancer, Seoul National University Hospital
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Abdel-Raouf KMA, Rezgui R, Stefanini C, Teo JCM, Christoforou N. Transdifferentiation of Human Fibroblasts into Skeletal Muscle Cells: Optimization and Assembly into Engineered Tissue Constructs through Biological Ligands. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10060539. [PMID: 34208436 PMCID: PMC8235639 DOI: 10.3390/biology10060539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Engineered human skeletal muscle tissue is a platform tool that can help scientists and physicians better understand human physiology, pharmacology, and disease modeling. Over the past few years this area of research has been actively being pursued by many labs worldwide. Significant challenges remain, including accessing an adequate cell source, and achieving proper physiological-like architecture of the engineered tissue. To address cell resourcing we aimed at further optimizing a process called transdifferentiation which involves the direct conversion of fibroblasts into skeletal muscle cells. The opportunity here is that fibroblasts are readily available and can be expanded sufficiently to meet the needs of a tissue engineering approach. Additionally, we aimed to demonstrate the applicability of transdifferentiation in assembling tissue engineered skeletal muscle. We implemented a screening process of protein ligands in an effort to refine transdifferentiation, and identified that most proteins resulted in a deficit in transdifferentiation efficiency, although one resulted in robust expansion of cultured cells. We were also successful in assembling engineered constructs consisting of transdifferentiated cells. Future directives involve demonstrating that the engineered tissues are capable of contractile and functional activity, and pursuit of optimizing factors such as electrical and chemical exposure, towards achieving physiological parameters observed in human muscle. Abstract The development of robust skeletal muscle models has been challenging due to the partial recapitulation of human physiology and architecture. Reliable and innovative 3D skeletal muscle models recently described offer an alternative that more accurately captures the in vivo environment but require an abundant cell source. Direct reprogramming or transdifferentiation has been considered as an alternative. Recent reports have provided evidence for significant improvements in the efficiency of derivation of human skeletal myotubes from human fibroblasts. Herein we aimed at improving the transdifferentiation process of human fibroblasts (tHFs), in addition to the differentiation of murine skeletal myoblasts (C2C12), and the differentiation of primary human skeletal myoblasts (HSkM). Differentiating or transdifferentiating cells were exposed to single or combinations of biological ligands, including Follistatin, GDF8, FGF2, GDF11, GDF15, hGH, TMSB4X, BMP4, BMP7, IL6, and TNF-α. These were selected for their critical roles in myogenesis and regeneration. C2C12 and tHFs displayed significant differentiation deficits when exposed to FGF2, BMP4, BMP7, and TNF-α, while proliferation was significantly enhanced by FGF2. When exposed to combinations of ligands, we observed consistent deficit differentiation when TNF-α was included. Finally, our direct reprogramming technique allowed for the assembly of elongated, cross-striated, and aligned tHFs within tissue-engineered 3D skeletal muscle constructs. In conclusion, we describe an efficient system to transdifferentiate human fibroblasts into myogenic cells and a platform for the generation of tissue-engineered constructs. Future directions will involve the evaluation of the functional characteristics of these engineered tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled M. A. Abdel-Raouf
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi 127788, United Arab Emirates;
- Department of Biology, American University in Cairo, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
- Correspondence: (K.M.A.A.-R.); (N.C.)
| | - Rachid Rezgui
- Core Technology Platforms, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi 129188, United Arab Emirates;
| | - Cesare Stefanini
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi 127788, United Arab Emirates;
- Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jeremy C. M. Teo
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi 129188, United Arab Emirates;
| | - Nicolas Christoforou
- Pfizer Inc., Rare Disease Research Unit, 610 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Correspondence: (K.M.A.A.-R.); (N.C.)
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9
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Guan X, Lei Q, Yan Q, Li X, Zhou J, Du G, Chen J. Trends and ideas in technology, regulation and public acceptance of cultured meat. FUTURE FOODS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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10
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Wroblewski OM, Vega-Soto EE, Nguyen MH, Cederna PS, Larkin LM. Impact of Human Epidermal Growth Factor on Tissue-Engineered Skeletal Muscle Structure and Function. Tissue Eng Part A 2021; 27:1151-1159. [PMID: 33203338 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2020.0255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle tissue engineering technologies have the potential to treat volumetric muscle loss (VML) by growing exogenous muscle tissue. However, there has been limited success in engineering human cell-sourced skeletal muscle with structure and function comparable to native adult human muscle. The use of growth factors at optimal concentrations and delivery times is critical in enhancing the in vitro myogenesis of satellite cells used in engineered skeletal muscle. The mitogenic protein human epidermal growth factor (hEGF) is of particular interest because it enhances satellite cell proliferation and sarcomeric structure formation in myogenic cell cultures. In this study, we used our scaffold-free tissue-engineered skeletal muscle units (SMUs) to examine the effects of hEGF on the structure and function of human cell-sourced engineered skeletal muscle. During our established SMU fabrication process, human muscle cell isolates were exposed to media treated with 7.5 nM hEGF at three different time spans during the 21-day cell culture period: 0 to 6 days postseeding (hEGF-treated Muscle Growth Media [MGM] Only), 7 to 21 days postseeding (hEGF-treated Muscle Differentiation Media (MDM) Only), and 0 to 21 days postseeding (hEGF-treated MGM+MDM). Control cell cultures were fed standard MGM and MDM (no hEGF treatment). During the fabrication process, light microscopy was used to examine proliferation and differentiation of myogenic cells in the monolayer. After SMU formation, the three-dimensional constructs underwent tetanic force production measurements to evaluate contractile function and immunohistochemical staining to examine SMU structure. Results indicated that hEGF administration impacted myogenesis, by increasing myotube diameter in hEGF-treated MGM only and hEGF-treated MDM-only cell cultures, and by increasing myotube density in hEGF-treated MGM+MDM cultures. The exposure of myogenic cells to hEGF during any time period of the fabrication process led to a significant increase in SMU myosin heavy-chain content. SMUs exposed to hEGF-treated MDM and hEGF-treated MGM+MDM exhibited greater cross-sectional areas and more organized sarcomeric structure. Furthermore, hEGF-treated MGM+MDM SMUs displayed significantly enhanced contractile function compared with controls, indicating advanced functional maturation. In conclusion, hEGF supplementation in human primary myogenic cell cultures advances tissue-engineered skeletal muscle structural and functional characteristics. Impact statement Our research suggests that human epidermal growth factor (hEGF) serves as a critical growth factor in enhancing in vitro skeletal muscle cell proliferation and differentiation during myogenesis and advances human skeletal muscle engineered tissues toward a more native adult skeletal muscle phenotype. Understanding the impact of hEGF on engineered skeletal muscle function and structure is valuable in determining the optimal culture conditions for the development of tissue engineering-based therapies for volumetric muscle loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga M Wroblewski
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Emmanuel E Vega-Soto
- Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Matthew H Nguyen
- Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Paul S Cederna
- Plastic Surgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Lisa M Larkin
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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11
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Langridge B, Griffin M, Butler PE. Regenerative medicine for skeletal muscle loss: a review of current tissue engineering approaches. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2021; 32:15. [PMID: 33475855 PMCID: PMC7819922 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-020-06476-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle is capable of regeneration following minor damage, more significant volumetric muscle loss (VML) however results in permanent functional impairment. Current multimodal treatment methodologies yield variable functional recovery, with reconstructive surgical approaches restricted by limited donor tissue and significant donor morbidity. Tissue-engineered skeletal muscle constructs promise the potential to revolutionise the treatment of VML through the regeneration of functional skeletal muscle. Herein, we review the current status of tissue engineering approaches to VML; firstly the design of biocompatible tissue scaffolds, including recent developments with electroconductive materials. Secondly, we review the progenitor cell populations used to seed scaffolds and their relative merits. Thirdly we review in vitro methods of scaffold functional maturation including the use of three-dimensional bioprinting and bioreactors. Finally, we discuss the technical, regulatory and ethical barriers to clinical translation of this technology. Despite significant advances in areas, such as electroactive scaffolds and three-dimensional bioprinting, along with several promising in vivo studies, there remain multiple technical hurdles before translation into clinically impactful therapies can be achieved. Novel strategies for graft vascularisation, and in vitro functional maturation will be of particular importance in order to develop tissue-engineered constructs capable of significant clinical impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Langridge
- Department of Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, Royal Free Hospital, London, UK.
- Charles Wolfson Center for Reconstructive Surgery, Royal Free Hospital, London, UK.
- Division of Surgery & Interventional Science, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Michelle Griffin
- Department of Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, Royal Free Hospital, London, UK
- Charles Wolfson Center for Reconstructive Surgery, Royal Free Hospital, London, UK
- Division of Surgery & Interventional Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Peter E Butler
- Department of Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery, Royal Free Hospital, London, UK
- Charles Wolfson Center for Reconstructive Surgery, Royal Free Hospital, London, UK
- Division of Surgery & Interventional Science, University College London, London, UK
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12
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Xu B, Siehr A, Shen W. Functional skeletal muscle constructs from transdifferentiated human fibroblasts. Sci Rep 2020; 10:22047. [PMID: 33328524 PMCID: PMC7744552 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78987-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Transdifferentiation of human non-muscle cells directly into myogenic cells by forced expression of MyoD represents one route to obtain highly desirable human myogenic cells. However, functional properties of the tissue constructs derived from these transdifferentiated cells have been rarely studied. Here, we report that three-dimensional (3D) tissue constructs engineered with iMyoD-hTERT-NHDFs, normal human dermal fibroblasts transduced with genes encoding human telomerase reverse transcriptase and doxycycline-inducible MyoD, generate detectable contractile forces in response to electrical stimuli upon MyoD expression. Withdrawal of doxycycline in the middle of 3D culture results in 3.05 and 2.28 times increases in twitch and tetanic forces, respectively, suggesting that temporally-controlled MyoD expression benefits functional myogenic differentiation of transdifferentiated myoblast-like cells. Treatment with CHIR99021, a Wnt activator, and DAPT, a Notch inhibitor, leads to further enhanced contractile forces. The ability of these abundant and potentially patient-specific and disease-specific cells to develop into functional skeletal muscle constructs makes them highly valuable for many applications, such as disease modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Xu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Allison Siehr
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Wei Shen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA. .,Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA. .,Institute for Engineering in Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
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13
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Abstract
Organs-on-chips are broadly defined as microfabricated surfaces or devices designed to engineer cells into microscale tissues with native-like features and then extract physiologically relevant readouts at scale. Because they are generally compatible with patient-derived cells, these technologies can address many of the human relevance limitations of animal models. As a result, organs-on-chips have emerged as a promising new paradigm for patient-specific disease modeling and drug development. Because neuromuscular diseases span a broad range of rare conditions with diverse etiology and complex pathophysiology, they have been especially challenging to model in animals and thus are well suited for organ-on-chip approaches. In this Review, we first briefly summarize the challenges in neuromuscular disease modeling with animal models. Next, we describe a variety of existing organ-on-chip approaches for neuromuscular tissues, including a survey of cell sources for both muscle and nerve, and two- and three-dimensional neuromuscular tissue-engineering techniques. Although researchers have made tremendous advances in modeling neuromuscular diseases on a chip, the remaining challenges in cell sourcing, cell maturity, tissue assembly and readout capabilities limit their integration into the drug development pipeline today. However, as the field advances, models of healthy and diseased neuromuscular tissues on a chip, coupled with animal models, have vast potential as complementary tools for modeling multiple aspects of neuromuscular diseases and identifying new therapeutic strategies. Summary: Modeling neuromuscular diseases is challenging due to their complex etiology and pathophysiology. Here, we review the cell sources and tissue-engineering procedures that are being integrated as emerging neuromuscular disease models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Santoso
- Laboratory for Living Systems Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, USC Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Megan L McCain
- Laboratory for Living Systems Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, USC Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA .,Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Keck School of Medicine of USC, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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14
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Lodrini AM, Barile L, Rocchetti M, Altomare C. Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Derived from a Cardiac Somatic Source: Insights for an In-Vitro Cardiomyocyte Platform. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21020507. [PMID: 31941149 PMCID: PMC7013592 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Reprogramming of adult somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has revolutionized the complex scientific field of disease modelling and personalized therapy. Cardiac differentiation of human iPSCs into cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) has been used in a wide range of healthy and disease models by deriving CMs from different somatic cells. Unfortunately, hiPSC-CMs have to be improved because existing protocols are not completely able to obtain mature CMs recapitulating physiological properties of human adult cardiac cells. Therefore, improvements and advances able to standardize differentiation conditions are needed. Lately, evidences of an epigenetic memory retained by the somatic cells used for deriving hiPSC-CMs has led to evaluation of different somatic sources in order to obtain more mature hiPSC-derived CMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Maria Lodrini
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milano 20126, Italy; (A.M.L.); (M.R.)
| | - Lucio Barile
- Fondazione Cardiocentro Ticino, Lugano 6900, Switzerland;
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano 6900, Switzerland
| | - Marcella Rocchetti
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milano 20126, Italy; (A.M.L.); (M.R.)
| | - Claudia Altomare
- Fondazione Cardiocentro Ticino, Lugano 6900, Switzerland;
- Correspondence:
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15
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Li HJ, Ray SK, Pan N, Haigh J, Fritzsch B, Leiter AB. Intestinal Neurod1 expression impairs paneth cell differentiation and promotes enteroendocrine lineage specification. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19489. [PMID: 31862906 PMCID: PMC6925293 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55292-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcription factor Neurod1 is required for enteroendocrine progenitor differentiation and maturation. Several earlier studies indicated that ectopic expression of Neurod1 converted non- neuronal cells into neurons. However, the functional consequence of ectopic Neurod1 expression has not been examined in the GI tract, and it is not known whether Neurod1 can similarly switch cell fates in the intestine. We generated a mouse line that would enable us to conditionally express Neurod1 in intestinal epithelial cells at different stages of differentiation. Forced expression of Neurod1 throughout intestinal epithelium increased the number of EECs as well as the expression of EE specific transcription factors and hormones. Furthermore, we observed a substantial reduction of Paneth cell marker expression, although the expressions of enterocyte-, tuft- and goblet-cell specific markers are largely not affected. Our earlier study indicated that Neurog3+ progenitor cells give rise to not only EECs but also Goblet and Paneth cells. Here we show that the conditional expression of Neurod1 restricts Neurog3+ progenitors to adopt Paneth cell fate, and promotes more pronounced EE cell differentiation, while such effects are not seen in more differentiated Neurod1+ cells. Together, our data suggest that forced expression of Neurod1 programs intestinal epithelial cells more towards an EE cell fate at the expense of the Paneth cell lineage and the effect ceases as cells mature to EE cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Joyce Li
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Subir K Ray
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Ning Pan
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
- Decibel Pharmaceutical, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jody Haigh
- Department of Biomedical, Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bernd Fritzsch
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Andrew B Leiter
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 364 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.
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16
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Grath A, Dai G. Direct cell reprogramming for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. J Biol Eng 2019; 13:14. [PMID: 30805026 PMCID: PMC6373087 DOI: 10.1186/s13036-019-0144-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Direct cell reprogramming, also called transdifferentiation, allows for the reprogramming of one somatic cell type directly into another, without the need to transition through an induced pluripotent state. Thus, it is an attractive approach to develop novel tissue engineering applications to treat diseases and injuries where there is a shortage of proliferating cells for tissue repair. In certain tissue damage, terminally differentiated somatic cells lose their ability to proliferate, as a result, damaged tissues cannot heal by themselves. Examples of these scenarios include myocardial infarctions, neurodegenerative diseases, and cartilage injuries. Transdifferentiation is capable of reprogramming cells that are abundant in the body into desired cell phenotypes that are able to restore tissue function in damaged areas. Therefore, direct cell reprogramming is a promising direction in the cell and tissue engineering and regenerative medicine fields. In recent years, several methods for transdifferentiation have been developed, ranging from the overexpression of transcription factors via viral vectors, to small molecules, to clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and its associated protein (Cas9) for both genetic and epigenetic reprogramming. Overexpressing transcription factors by use of a lentivirus is currently the most prevalent technique, however it lacks high reprogramming efficiencies and can pose problems when transitioning to human subjects and clinical trials. CRISPR/Cas9, fused with proteins that modulate transcription, has been shown to improve efficiencies greatly. Transdifferentiation has successfully generated many cell phenotypes, including endothelial cells, skeletal myocytes, neuronal cells, and more. These cells have been shown to emulate mature adult cells such that they are able to mimic major functions, and some are capable of promoting regeneration of damaged tissue in vivo. While transdifferentiated cells have not yet seen clinical use, they have had promise in mice models, showing success in treating liver disease and several brain-related diseases, while also being utilized as a cell source for tissue engineered vascular grafts to treat damaged blood vessels. Recently, localized transdifferentiated cells have been generated in situ, allowing for treatments without invasive surgeries and more complete transdifferentiation. In this review, we summarized the recent development in various cell reprogramming techniques, their applications in converting various somatic cells, their uses in tissue regeneration, and the challenges of transitioning to a clinical setting, accompanied with potential solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Grath
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Lake Hall 214A, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Guohao Dai
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Lake Hall 214A, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115 USA
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17
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Linard C, Brachet M, L'homme B, Strup-Perrot C, Busson E, Bonneau M, Lataillade JJ, Bey E, Benderitter M. Long-term effectiveness of local BM-MSCs for skeletal muscle regeneration: a proof of concept obtained on a pig model of severe radiation burn. Stem Cell Res Ther 2018; 9:299. [PMID: 30409227 PMCID: PMC6225585 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-018-1051-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Medical management of the severe musculocutaneous radiation syndrome involves surgical intervention with debridement of necrotic tissue. Even when skin excision is replaced by specific plastic surgery, treatment of the muscle radiation injury nonetheless remains difficult, for it involves a massive muscle defect in an unpredictable environment, subject to inflammatory waves weeks to months after irradiation, which delay healing and predispose the patient to the development of fibrous scar tissue. In this study, we investigated the long-term effect of local injections of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-MSCs), combined with plastic surgery, to treat muscle necrosis in a large animal model. METHODS Three months after irradiation to the rump, minipigs were treated by excision of necrotic muscle tissue, vascularized flap surgery, and four injections with or without local autologous BM-MSCs, performed weekly. The quality of the muscle wound healing was examined 1 year post-surgery. RESULTS The skeletal muscle surgery without MSC treatment led to permanent deposition of collagen 1 and 3, decreased myofiber diameter, failed muscle fiber regeneration, a reduced number of capillaries, and the accumulation of high calcium and fat. In animals treated by surgery and MSC injections, these indicators were substantially better and demonstrated established regeneration. MSC therapy acts at several levels by stimulating growth factors such as VEGF, which is involved in angiogenesis and satellite cell pool maintenance, and creating a macrophage M1/M2 balance. CONCLUSION Thus, cell therapy using BM-MSCs is an effective and safe way to improve recovery of irradiation-induced skeletal muscle damage without signs of long-term degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Linard
- Institute of Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, B.P. n°17, F-92262, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France. .,Unité de Thérapie Tissulaire et Traumatologie de Guerre, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Clamart, France.
| | - Michel Brachet
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Military Hospital of Percy, Clamart, France
| | - Bruno L'homme
- Institute of Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, B.P. n°17, F-92262, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Carine Strup-Perrot
- Institute of Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, B.P. n°17, F-92262, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Elodie Busson
- Unité des Médicaments de Thérapie Innovante, Centre de Transfusion Sanguine des Armées, Clamart, France
| | - Michel Bonneau
- Centre of Research in Interventional Imaging, National Institut of Agronomic Research, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Jean-Jacques Lataillade
- Unité de Thérapie Tissulaire et Traumatologie de Guerre, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Clamart, France
| | - Eric Bey
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Military Hospital of Percy, Clamart, France
| | - Marc Benderitter
- Institute of Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, B.P. n°17, F-92262, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
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18
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Truskey GA. Development and application of human skeletal muscle microphysiological systems. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:3061-3073. [PMID: 30183050 PMCID: PMC6177290 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00553b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
A number of major disease states involve skeletal muscle, including type 2 diabetes, muscular dystrophy, sarcopenia and cachexia arising from cancer or heart disease. Animals do not accurately represent many of these disease states. Human skeletal muscle microphysiological systems derived from primary or induced pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) can provide an in vitro model of genetic and chronic diseases and assess individual variations. Three-dimensional culture systems more accurately represent skeletal muscle function than do two-dimensional cultures. While muscle biopsies enable culture of primary muscle cells, hPSCs provide the opportunity to sample a wider population of donors. Recent advances to promote maturation of PSC-derived skeletal muscle provide an alternative to primary cells. While contractile function is often measured in three-dimensional cultures and several systems exist to characterize contraction of small numbers of muscle fibers, there is a need for functional measures of metabolism suited for microphysiological systems. Future research should address generation of well-differentiated hPSC-derived muscle cells, enabling muscle repair in vitro, and improved disease models.
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Affiliation(s)
- George A Truskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 1427 CIEMAS, 101 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27708-0281, USA.
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Regeneration and Regrowth Potentials of Digit Tips in Amphibians and Mammals. Int J Cell Biol 2017; 2017:5312951. [PMID: 28487741 PMCID: PMC5402240 DOI: 10.1155/2017/5312951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue regeneration and repair have received much attention in the medical field over the years. The study of amphibians, such as newts and salamanders, has uncovered many of the processes that occur in these animals during full-limb/digit regeneration, a process that is highly limited in mammals. Understanding these processes in amphibians could shed light on how to develop and improve this process in mammals. Amputation injuries in mammals usually result in the formation of scar tissue with limited regrowth of the limb/digit; however, it has been observed that the very tips of digits (fingers and toes) can partially regrow in humans and mice under certain conditions. This review will summarize and compare the processes involved in salamander limb regeneration, mammalian wound healing, and digit regeneration in mice and humans.
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