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Dirikolu L, Waller P, Malveaux K, Lucas CH, Lomnicka I, Pourciau A, Bennadji H, Liu CC. Total Carbon Dioxide (TCO 2) Concentrations in Thoroughbred and Quarter Racehorses in Louisiana. J Equine Vet Sci 2023; 121:104220. [PMID: 36621701 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2023.104220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The TCO2 (total carbon dioxide) test is performed on the blood of racehorses as a means of combatting the practice of administering alkalizing agents. This study evaluated serum TCO2 concentrations and factors influencing concentration of TCO2 in Thoroughbred and Quarter Horses. The normality of data were evaluated with a Shapiro-Wilk test. Mann-Whitney tests and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used against different effects. When a fixed effect was detected, Dunn's post-hoc comparisons were performed. The median pre-race serum TCO2 concentration (32.20 mmol/L (interquartile range (IQR): 30.80-33.50)) was higher than that of post-race samples (26.70 mmol/L (IQR: 24.55-29.25)) (P < .0001). The median TCO2 concentrations in pre-race samples were different between Thoroughbred (32.40 mmol/L (IQR: 30.90-33.60)) and Quarter Horses (31.30 mmol/L (IQR: 30.00-32.50)) (P < .0001). The median pre-race TCO2 concentrations were 32.75 (IQR: 31.40-33.90), 31.40 (IQR: 29.80-32.80), 32.50 (IQR: 31.20-33.88), and 31.60 (IQR 30.00-32.70) mmol/L in racehorses at Fair Grounds, Louisiana Downs, Delta Downs, and Evangeline Downs racetracks, respectively (P < .0001). The total serum TCO2 concentrations in Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse racehorses were affected by seasonal temperature variation (P < .0001). A smaller sample size was available for post-race samples (n = 205) and Quarter Horse pre-race samples (n = 351). The results of this study indicated that the breed, seasonal temperature variation, pre-race or post-race sampling, and track location are strongly correlated to total TCO2 concentrations. It was not clear whether the statistically significant differences in TCO2 levels among racetracks in Louisiana were due to location of racetracks and/or seasonal temperature variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Levent Dirikolu
- Equine Medication Surveillance Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA.
| | - Pamela Waller
- Equine Medication Surveillance Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
| | - Kesha Malveaux
- Equine Medication Surveillance Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
| | - Cam H Lucas
- Equine Medication Surveillance Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
| | - Izabela Lomnicka
- Equine Medication Surveillance Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
| | - Ashley Pourciau
- Equine Medication Surveillance Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
| | - Hayat Bennadji
- Equine Medication Surveillance Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
| | - Chin-Chi Liu
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Services, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
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Zahra PW, Jayasinghe NS, Selvadurai NS, Willers SJ, Krsta D, Batty DC, Vine JH. A Fully Automated Method to Quantitate Total Carbon Dioxide in Equine Plasma by Headspace GCMS. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1724-1731. [PMID: 35940610 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Pre-race dosing of horses with alkalinising agents to manipulate performance has been evident in racing worldwide for over 30 years. To regulate the use of alkalinising agents, racing authorities adopted thresholds for total plasma carbon dioxide (TCO2 ) in racehorses. Traditionally, racing laboratories have measured plasma TCO2 using ion selective electrode (ISE) technology, with the Association of Official Racing Chemists (AORC) approving the use of only three ISE instruments for measurement. Due to the manufacture and support of these instruments ceasing, racing laboratories have explored alternative techniques to measure plasma TCO2 . In this study, HSGCMS with fully automated sample preparation was investigated as an alternative technique to ISE. Sample preparation was carried out online on a Gerstel robot, where plasma was aspirated directly from sealed vacutainer tubes before further treatment and headspace injection into a GCMS. The method was successfully cross validated against a Beckman Unicel DxC®600, meeting all criteria stipulated in the AORC cross-validation protocol. The method achieved an accuracy of 99.8%, within-run RSD of 0.22% and interday reproducibility of 0.04 mM, all significant improvements on the authors ISE method. A population study was also conducted to ensure the plasma TCO2 threshold, established with ISE methodology, did not change with the developed HSGCMS method. The concentrations and standard deviations for the two methods were almost identical, HSGCMS mean 30.62 mM, standard deviation 1.65 mM, and ISE 30.65 mM and 1.55 mM. The results indicate the fully automated HSGCMS method is suitable for measurement of equine plasma TCO2 for regulatory purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul W Zahra
- Racing Analytical Services Limited, Flemington, VIC, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | - David C Batty
- Racing Analytical Services Limited, Flemington, VIC, Australia
| | - John H Vine
- Racing Analytical Services Limited, Flemington, VIC, Australia
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Lindinger MI. Total Carbon Dioxide in Adult Standardbred and Thoroughbred Horses. J Equine Vet Sci 2021; 106:103730. [PMID: 34670689 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The TCO2 (total carbon dioxide) test is performed on the blood of racehorses as a means of combatting the practice of administering alkalizing agents for the purpose of enhancing performance. The purposes of this review are to present an overview of the factors contributing to TCO2 and to review the literature regarding TCO2 in adult Standardbred and Thoroughbred horses to demonstrate the range of variability of TCO2 in horses. Most of the research published on the topic of TCO2 or bicarbonate measurement in racehorses was accessed and reviewed. PubMed and Google Scholar were the primary search engines used to source the relevant literature. The main physicochemical factors that contribute to changes in TCO2 in horses at rest are changes in strong ions concentration, followed by changes in weak acid (i.e. plasma albumin) concentrations. There is a wide normal distribution of TCO2 in horses ranging from 23 mmol/L to 38 mmol/L. Independent of administration of alkalizing agents, blood TCO2 is affected mainly by feeding, time of day (diurnal variation), season and exercise. There are few studies that have reported hour-by-hour changes in TCO2. Racehorse population studies suffer from lack of validation regarding whether or not a horse was administered an alkalizing agent. It is concluded that the normal range of TCO2 in non-alkalized Standardbred and Thoroughbred horses is significantly wider than has been appreciated, that periods of elevated TCO2 appear to be normal for many horses at rest, and that a TCO2 test alone is not definitive for the purposes of determining of an alkalizing agent has been administered to a horse.
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Ding X, Li M, Peng C, Wang Z, Qian S, Ma Y, Fang T, Feng S, Li Y, Wang X, Li J, Wu J. Uric acid transporters BCRP and MRP4 involved in chickens uric acid excretion. BMC Vet Res 2019; 15:180. [PMID: 31146764 PMCID: PMC6543625 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-1886-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) and multidrug resistance protein 4 (MRP4) are involved in uric acid excretion in humans and mice. Despite evidence suggesting that renal proximal tubular epithelial cells participate in uric acid excretion in chickens, the roles of BCRP and MRP4 therein remain unclear. This study evaluated the relationship between BCRP and MRP4 expression and renal function in chickens. Results Sixty laying hens were randomly divided into four treatment groups: a control group (NC) fed a basal diet; a sulfonamide-treated group (SD) fed the basal diet and supplemented with sulfamonomethoxine sodium via drinking water (8 mg/L); a fish meal group (FM) fed the basal diet supplemented with 16% fishmeal; and a uric acid injection group (IU) fed the basal diet and intraperitoneally injected with uric acid (250 mg/kg body weight). The results showed that serum uric acid, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen levels were significantly higher in the SD and IU, but not FM, than in the NC groups. Renal tubular epithelial cells in the SD and IU groups were damaged. Liver BCRP and MRP4 mRNA and protein levels were significantly decreased in the SD and IU groups, but slightly increased in the FM group. In the SD group, BCRP and MRP4 were significantly increased in the ileum and slightly increased in the kidney. In the FM group, BCRP and MRP4 were significantly increased in the kidney and slightly increased in the ileum. In the IU group, BCRP and MRP4 were significantly increased in the kidney and ileum. BCRP and MRP4 expression in the jejunum was not affected by the treatments. Conclusion Together, these results demonstrate that BCRP and MRP4 are involved in renal and intestinal uric acid excretion in chickens and that BCRP is positively related to MRP4 expression. Further, impairment of renal function results in an increase in serum uric acid as well as a compensatory increase in BCRP and MRP4 in the ileum; however, under normal renal function, renal BCRP and MRP4 are the main regulators of uric acid excretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuedong Ding
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Manman Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Chenglu Peng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Zhi Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Shoufa Qian
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Yuying Ma
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Tianyi Fang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Shibin Feng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Yu Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Xichun Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Jinchun Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China
| | - Jinjie Wu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 West Changjiang Road, Hefei, 230036, China.
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