RNA decay: a novel therapeutic target in bacteria

Unrealized targets in the discovery of antibiotics for Gram-negative bacterial infections

Advances in areas that include genomics, systems biology, protein structure determination and artificial intelligence provide new opportunities for target-based antibacterial drug discovery. The selection of a 'good' new target for direct-acting antibacterial compounds is the first decision, for which multiple criteria must be explored, integrated and re-evaluated as drug discovery programmes progress. Criteria include essentiality of the target for bacterial survival, its conservation across different strains of the same species, bacterial species and growth conditions (which determines the spectrum of activity of a potential antibiotic) and the level of homology with human genes (which influences the potential for selective inhibition). Additionally, a bacterial target should have the potential to bind to drug-like molecules, and its subcellular location will govern the need for inhibitors to penetrate one or two bacterial membranes, which is a key challenge in targeting Gram-negative bacteria. The risk of the emergence of target-based drug resistance for drugs with single targets also requires consideration. This Review describes promising but as-yet-unrealized targets for antibacterial drugs against Gram-negative bacteria and examples of cognate inhibitors, and highlights lessons learned from past drug discovery programmes.

Pharmaceutical nanotechnology: Antimicrobial peptides as potential new drugs against WHO list of critical, high, and medium priority bacteria

Nanobiotechnology is a relatively unexplored area that has, nevertheless, shown relevant results in the fight against some diseases. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are biomacromolecules with potential activity against multi/extensively drug-resistant bacteria, with a lower risk of generating bacterial resistance. They can be considered an excellent biotechnological alternative to conventional drugs. However, the application of several AMPs to biological systems is hampered by their poor stability and lifetime, inactivating them completely. Therefore, nanotechnology plays an important role in the development of new AMP-based drugs, protecting and carrying the bioactive to the target. This is the first review article on the different reported nanosystems using AMPs against bacteria listed on the WHO priority list. The current shortage of information implies a nanobiotechnological potential to obtain new drugs or repurpose drugs based on the AMP-drug synergistic effect.

The effect of two ribonucleases on the production of Shiga toxin and stx-bearing bacteriophages in Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) comprise a group of intestinal pathogens responsible for a range of illnesses, including kidney failure and neurological compromise. EHEC produce critical virulence factors, Shiga toxin (Stx) 1 or 2, and the synthesis of Stx2 is associated with worse disease manifestations. Infected patients only receive supportive treatment because some conventional antibiotics enable toxin production. Shiga toxin 2 genes (stx2) are carried in λ-like bacteriophages (stx2-phages) inserted into the EHEC genome as prophages. Factors that cause DNA damage induce the lytic cycle of stx2-phages, leading to Stx2 production. The phage Q protein is critical for transcription antitermination of stx2 and phage lytic genes. This study reports that deficiency of two endoribonucleases (RNases), E and G, significantly delayed cell lysis and impaired production of both Stx2 and stx2-phages, unlike deficiency of either enzyme alone. Moreover, scarcity of both enzymes reduced the concentrations of Q and stx2 transcripts and slowed cell growth.

An Investigation into the Potential of Targeting Escherichia coli rne mRNA with Locked Nucleic Acid (LNA) Gapmers as an Antibacterial Strategy

The increase in antibacterial resistance is a serious challenge for both the health and defence sectors and there is a need for both novel antibacterial targets and antibacterial strategies. RNA degradation and ribonucleases, such as the essential endoribonuclease RNase E, encoded by the rne gene, are emerging as potential antibacterial targets while antisense oligonucleotides may provide alternative antibacterial strategies. As rne mRNA has not been previously targeted using an antisense approach, we decided to explore using antisense oligonucleotides to target the translation initiation region of the Escherichia coli rne mRNA. Antisense oligonucleotides were rationally designed and were synthesised as locked nucleic acid (LNA) gapmers to enable inhibition of rne mRNA translation through two mechanisms. Either LNA gapmer binding could sterically block translation and/or LNA gapmer binding could facilitate RNase H-mediated cleavage of the rne mRNA. This may prove to be an advantage over the majority of previous antibacterial antisense oligonucleotide approaches which used oligonucleotide chemistries that restrict the mode-of-action of the antisense oligonucleotide to steric blocking of translation. Using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay, we demonstrate that the LNA gapmers bind to the translation initiation region of E. coli rne mRNA. We then use a cell-free transcription translation reporter assay to show that this binding is capable of inhibiting translation. Finally, in an in vitro RNase H cleavage assay, the LNA gapmers facilitate RNase H-mediated mRNA cleavage. Although the challenges of antisense oligonucleotide delivery remain to be addressed, overall, this work lays the foundations for the development of a novel antibacterial strategy targeting rne mRNA with antisense oligonucleotides.

Targeting of the Essential acpP, ftsZ, and rne Genes in Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii by Antisense PNA Precision Antibacterials

Infections by carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii (CRAB), a widespread nosocomial pathogen, are becoming increasingly difficult to prevent and treat. Therefore, there is an urgent need for discovery of novel antibiotics against CRAB. Programmable, precision antisense antibiotics, e.g., based on the nucleic acid mimic PNA (peptide nucleic acid) have shown promise in this respect in the form of PNA-BPP (bacteria penetrating peptide) conjugates targeting essential bacterial genes. In the present study, we designed and synthesized a series of PNA-BPPs targeting the translation initiation region of the ftsZ, acpP, or rne gene of CRAB strains. The antimicrobial activity of the compounds and effects on gene expression level was compared to that of analogous mismatch PNA controls. Three antisense conjugates (KFF)₃K-eg1-(acpP)PNA (5639), (KFF)₃K-eg1-(ftsZ)PNA (5612), and (KFF)₃-K-eg1-(rne)PNA (5656) exhibited complete growth inhibition against several CRAB strains at 1-2, 2-8, and 2 µM, respectively, and the compounds were bactericidal at 1-2× MIC. The bactericidal effect was correlated to reduction of target gene mRNA level using RT-qPCR, and the compounds showed no bacterial membrane disruption activity at 1-2× MIC. PNA5612 was tested against a series of 12 CRAB isolates and all were sensitive at 2-8 µM. In addition, the conjugates exhibited no cellular toxicity in the HepG2 cell line (up to 20 μM) and did not shown significant antibacterial activity against other Gram negatives (E. coli, P. aeruginosa). These results provide a starting point for discovery of antisense precision designer antibiotics for specific treatment of CRAB infections.

Plant synthetic biology for producing potent phyto-antimicrobials to combat antimicrobial resistance

Inappropriate and injudicious use of antimicrobial drugs in human health, hygiene, agriculture, animal husbandry and food industries has contributed significantly to rapid emergence and persistence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), one of the serious global public health threats. The crisis of AMR versus slower discovery of newer antibiotics put forth a daunting task to control these drug-resistant superbugs. Several phyto-antimicrobials have been identified in recent years with direct-killing (bactericidal) and/or drug-resistance reversal (re-sensitization of AMR phenotypes) potencies. Phyto-antimicrobials may hold the key in combating AMR owing to their abilities to target major microbial drug-resistance determinants including cell membrane, drug-efflux pumps, cell communication and biofilms. However, limited distribution, low intracellular concentrations, eco-geographical variations, beside other considerations like dynamic environments, climate change and over-exploitation of plant-resources are major blockades in full potential exploration phyto-antimicrobials. Synthetic biology (SynBio) strategies integrating metabolic engineering, RNA-interference, genome editing/engineering and/or systems biology approaches using plant chassis (as engineerable platforms) offer prospective tools for production of phyto-antimicrobials. With expanding SynBio toolkit, successful attempts towards introduction of entire gene cluster, reconstituting the metabolic pathway or transferring an entire metabolic (or synthetic) pathway into heterologous plant systems highlight the potential of this field. Through this perspective review, we are presenting herein the current situation and options for addressing AMR, emphasizing on the significance of phyto-antimicrobials in this apparently post-antibiotic era, and effective use of plant chassis for phyto-antimicrobial production at industrial scales along with major SynBio tools and useful databases. Current knowledge, recent success stories, associated challenges and prospects of translational success are also discussed.

Identification and analysis of novel small molecule inhibitors of RNase E: Implications for antibacterial targeting and regulation of RNase E

Increasing resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a serious global challenge and there is a need to unlock the potential of novel antibacterial targets. One such target is the essential prokaryotic endoribonuclease RNase E. Using a combination of in silico high-throughput screening and in vitro validation we have identified three novel small molecule inhibitors of RNase E that are active against RNase E from Escherichia coli, Francisella tularensis and Acinetobacter baumannii. Two of the inhibitors are non-natural small molecules that could be suitable as lead compounds for the development of broad-spectrum antibiotics targeting RNase E. The third small molecule inhibitor is glucosamine-6-phosphate, a precursor of bacterial cell envelope peptidoglycans and lipopolysaccharides, hinting at a novel metabolite-mediated mechanism of regulation of RNase E.

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RNase E, an essential bacterial endoribonuclease, is a potential antibacterial target.

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Three novel small molecule inhibitors of RNase E are identified.

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Each inhibitor is active against RNase E from E. coli, F. tularensis and A. baumannii.

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Two, as non-natural compounds, are suitable lead compounds for antibiotic development.

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One, a metabolite, is a potential novel regulator of RNase E.

Effects of S. mutans gene-modification and antibacterial monomer dimethylaminohexadecyl methacrylate on biofilm growth and acid production

OBJECTIVES

Antibacterial quaternary ammonium monomers (QAMs) are used in resins. The rnc gene in Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans) plays a key role in resisting antibiotics. The objectives of this study were to investigate for the first time: (1) the effects of rnc deletion on S. mutans biofilms and acid production; (2) the combined effects of rnc deletion with dimethylaminohexadecyl methacrylate (DMAHDM) on biofilm-inhibition efficacy.

METHODS

Parent S. mutans strain UA159 (ATCC 700610) and the rnc-deleted S. mutans were used. Bacterial growth, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) were measured to analyze the bacterial susceptibility of the parent and rnc-deleted S. mutans against DMAHDM, with the gold-standard chlorhexidine (CHX) as control. Biofilm biomass, polysaccharide and lactic acid production were measured.

RESULTS

The drug-susceptibility of the rnc-deleted S. mutans to DMAHDM or CHX was 2-fold higher than parent S. mutans. The drug-susceptibility did not increase after 10 passages (p < 0.05). Deleting the rnc gene increased the biofilm susceptibility to DMAHDM or CHX by 2-fold. The rnc-deletion in S. mutans reduced biofilm biomass, polysaccharide and lactic acid production, even at no drugs. DMAHDM was nearly 40 % more potent than the gold-standard CHX. The combination of rnc deletion+DMAHDM treatment achieved the greatest reduction in biofilm biomass, polysaccharide synthesis, and lactic acid production.

SIGNIFICANCE

Gene modification by deleting the rnc in S. mutans reduced the biofilm growth and acid production, and the rnc deletion+DMAHDM method showed the greatest biofilm-inhibition efficacy, for the first time. The dual strategy of antibacterial monomer+bacterial gene modification shows great potential to control biofilms and inhibit caries.

A structural and biochemical comparison of Ribonuclease E homologues from pathogenic bacteria highlights species-specific properties

Regulation of gene expression through processing and turnover of RNA is a key mechanism that allows bacteria to rapidly adapt to changing environmental conditions. Consequently, RNA degrading enzymes (ribonucleases; RNases) such as the endoribonuclease RNase E, frequently play critical roles in pathogenic bacterial virulence and are potential antibacterial targets. RNase E consists of a highly conserved catalytic domain and a variable non-catalytic domain that functions as the structural scaffold for the multienzyme degradosome complex. Despite conservation of the catalytic domain, a recent study identified differences in the response of RNase E homologues from different species to the same inhibitory compound(s). While RNase E from Escherichia coli has been well-characterised, far less is known about RNase E homologues from other bacterial species. In this study, we structurally and biochemically characterise the RNase E catalytic domains from four pathogenic bacteria: Yersinia pestis, Francisella tularensis, Burkholderia pseudomallei and Acinetobacter baumannii, with a view to exploiting RNase E as an antibacterial target. Bioinformatics, small-angle x-ray scattering and biochemical RNA cleavage assays reveal globally similar structural and catalytic properties. Surprisingly, subtle species-specific differences in both structure and substrate specificity were also identified that may be important for the development of effective antibacterial drugs targeting RNase E.

Identification of Small Molecule Inhibitors of Staphylococcus aureus RnpA

Staphylococcus aureus RnpA is thought to be a unique dual functional antimicrobial target that is required for two essential cellular processes, precursor tRNA processing and messenger RNA degradation. Herein, we used a previously described whole cell-based mupirocin synergy assay to screen members of a 53,000 compound small molecule diversity library and simultaneously enrich for agents with cellular RnpA inhibitory activity. A medicinal chemistry-based campaign was launched to generate a preliminary structure activity relationship and guide early optimization of two novel chemical classes of RnpA inhibitors identified, phenylcarbamoyl cyclic thiophene and piperidinecarboxamide. Representatives of each chemical class displayed potent anti-staphylococcal activity, limited the protein’s in vitro ptRNA processing and mRNA degradation activities, and exhibited favorable therapeutic indexes. The most potent piperidinecarboxamide RnpA inhibitor, JC2, displayed inhibition of cellular RnpA mRNA turnover, RnpA-depletion strain hypersusceptibility, and exhibited antimicrobial efficacy in a wax worm model of S. aureus infection. Taken together, these results establish that the whole cell screening assay used is amenable to identifying small molecule RnpA inhibitors within large chemical libraries and that the chemical classes identified here may represent progenitors of new classes of antimicrobials that target RnpA.

Crystal structure of the ribonuclease-P-protein subunit from Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus ribonuclease-P-protein subunit (RnpA) is a promising antimicrobial target that is a key protein component for two essential cellular processes, RNA degradation and transfer-RNA (tRNA) maturation. The first crystal structure of RnpA from the pathogenic bacterial species, S. aureus, is reported at 2.0 Å resolution. The structure presented maintains key similarities with previously reported RnpA structures from bacteria and archaea, including the highly conserved RNR-box region and aromatic residues in the precursor-tRNA 5'-leader-binding domain. This structure will be instrumental in the pursuit of structure-based designed inhibitors targeting RnpA-mediated RNA processing as a novel therapeutic approach for treating S. aureus infections.

Influence of RNase E deficiency on the production of stx2-bearing phages and Shiga toxin in an RNase E-inducible strain of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7

PURPOSE

In enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), stx1 or stx2 genes encode Shiga toxin (Stx1 or Stx2, respectively) and are carried by prophages. The production and release of both stx phages and toxin occur upon initiation of the phage lytic cycle. Phages can further disseminate stx genes by infecting naïve bacteria in the intestine. Here, the effect of RNase E deficiency on these two virulence traits was investigated.

METHODOLOGY

Cultures of the EHEC strains TEA028-rne containing low versus normal RNase E levels or the parental strain (TEA028) were treated with mitomycin C (MMC) to induce the phage lytic cycle. Phages and Stx2 titres were quantified by the double-agar assay and the receptor ELISA technique, respectively.

RESULTS

RNase E deficiency in MMC-treated cells significantly reduced the yield of infectious stx2 phages. Delayed cell lysis and the appearance of encapsidated phage DNA copies suggest a slow onset of the lytic cycle. However, these observations do not entirely explain the decrease of phage yields. stx1 phages were not detected under normal or deficient RNase E levels. After an initial delay, high levels of toxin were finally produced in MMC-treated cultures.

CONCLUSION

RNase E scarcity reduces stx2 phage production but not toxin. Normal concentrations of RNase E are likely required for correct phage morphogenesis. Our future work will address the mechanism of RNase E action on phage morphogenesis.

Genome-wide analysis shows that RNase G plays a global role in the stability of mRNAs in Stenotrophomonas maltophilia

Gene expression is determined by critical processes such as RNA synthesis and degradation. Ribonucleases participate in the coordinated and differential decay of messenger RNAs. We describe a suitable method of normalization and calculation of mRNAs half-life values quantified by RNA-Seq. We determined the mRNA half-lives of more than 2000 genes in Stenotrophomonas maltophilia D457 and in an isogenic RNase G deficient mutant. Median half-lives were 2,74 and 3 min in the wild-type and the rng-deficient strain, respectively. The absence of RNase G resulted in an overall enhancement of mRNA half-life times, showing that many RNAs are targets of RNase G in S. maltophilia. Around 40 genes are likely to be regulated directly by RNase G since their half-lives were more than two-fold higher in the rng-deficient mutant. Gene length, GC content or expression levels did not correlate with mRNAs lifetimes, although groups of genes with different functions showed different RNA half-lives. Further, we predicted 1542 gene pairs to be part of the same operons in S. maltophilia. In contrast to what was described for other bacteria, our data indicate that RNase G has a global role in mRNA stability and consequently in the regulation of S. maltophilia gene expression.

Functional assignment for essential hypothetical proteins of Staphylococcus aureus N315

Staphylococcus aureus, the causative agent of nosocomial infections worldwide, has acquired resistance to almost all antibiotics stressing the need to develop novel drugs against this pathogen. In S. aureus N315, 302 genes have been identified as essential genes, indispensable for growth and survival of the pathogen. The functions of 40 proteins encoded by S. aureus essential genes were found to be hypothetical and thus referred as essential hypothetical proteins (EHPs). The present study aims to carry out functional characterization of EHPs using bioinformatics tools/databases, whose performance was assessed by Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Evaluation of physicochemical parameters, homology search against known proteins, domain analysis, subcellular localization analysis and virulence prediction assisted us to characterize EHPs. Functional assignment for 35 EHPs was made with high confidence. They belong to different functional classes like enzymes, binding proteins, miscellaneous proteins, helicases, transporters and virulence factors. Around 35% of EHPs were from hydrolases family. A group of EHPs (32.5%) were predicted as virulence factors. Of 35, 19 essential pathogen-specific proteins were considered as probable drug targets. Two targets were found to be druggable and others were novel targets. Outcome of the study could aid to identify novel drugs for better treatment of S. aureus infections.

Both exo- and endo-nucleolytic activities of RNase J1 from Staphylococcus aureus are manganese dependent and active on triphosphorylated 5'-ends

RNA decay and RNA maturation are important steps in the regulation of bacterial gene expression. RNase J, which is present in about half of bacterial species, has been shown to possess both endo- and 5' to 3' exo-ribonuclease activities. The exonucleolytic activity is clearly involved in the degradation of mRNA and in the maturation of at least the 5' end of 16S rRNA in the 2 Firmicutes Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. The endoribonuclease activity of RNase J from several species has been shown to be weak in vitro and 3-D structural data of different RNase J orthologs have not provided a clear explanation for the molecular basis of this activity. Here, we show that S. aureus RNase J1 is a manganese dependent homodimeric enzyme with strong 5' to 3' exo-ribonuclease as well as endo-ribonuclease activity. In addition, we demonstrated that SauJ1 can efficiently degrade 5' triphosphorylated RNA. Our results highlight RNase J1 as an important player in RNA turnover in S. aureus.

Structural Insights into a Unique Dimeric DEAD-Box Helicase CshA that Promotes RNA Decay

CshA is a dimeric DEAD-box helicase that cooperates with ribonucleases for mRNA turnover. The molecular mechanism for how a dimeric DEAD-box helicase aids in RNA decay remains unknown. Here, we report the crystal structure and small-angle X-ray scattering solution structure of the CshA from Geobacillus stearothermophilus. In contrast to typical monomeric DEAD-box helicases, CshA is exclusively a dimeric protein with the RecA-like domains of each protomer forming a V-shaped structure. We show that the C-terminal domains protruding outward from the tip of the V-shaped structure is critical for mediating strong RNA binding and is crucial for efficient RNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis. We also show that RNA remains bound with CshA during ATP hydrolysis cycles and thus bulk RNAs could be unwound and degraded in a processive manner through cooperation between exoribonucleases and CshA. A dimeric helicase is hence preserved in RNA-degrading machinery for efficient RNA turnover in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Small-molecule inhibitors of Staphylococcus aureus RnpA-mediated RNA turnover and tRNA processing

New agents are urgently needed for the therapeutic treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infections. In that regard, S. aureus RNase RnpA may represent a promising novel dual-function antimicrobial target that participates in two essential cellular processes, RNA degradation and tRNA maturation. Accordingly, we previously used a high-throughput screen to identify small-molecule inhibitors of the RNA-degrading activity of the enzyme and showed that the RnpA inhibitor RNPA1000 is an attractive antimicrobial development candidate. In this study, we used a series of in vitro and cellular assays to characterize a second RnpA inhibitor, RNPA2000, which was identified in our initial screening campaign and is structurally distinct from RNPA1000. In doing so, it was found that S. aureus RnpA does indeed participate in 5'-precursor tRNA processing, as was previously hypothesized. Further, we show that RNPA2000 is a bactericidal agent that inhibits both RnpA-associated RNA degradation and tRNA maturation activities both in vitro and within S. aureus. The compound appears to display specificity for RnpA, as it did not significantly affect the in vitro activities of unrelated bacterial or eukaryotic ribonucleases and did not display measurable human cytotoxicity. Finally, we show that RNPA2000 exhibits antimicrobial activity and inhibits tRNA processing in efflux-deficient Gram-negative pathogens. Taken together, these data support the targeting of RnpA for antimicrobial development purposes, establish that small-molecule inhibitors of both of the functions of the enzyme can be identified, and lend evidence that RnpA inhibitors may have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities.

The highly conserved bacterial RNase YbeY is essential in Vibrio cholerae, playing a critical role in virulence, stress regulation, and RNA processing

YbeY, a highly conserved protein, is an RNase in E. coli and plays key roles in both processing of the critical 3′ end of 16 S rRNA and in 70 S ribosome quality control under stress. These central roles account for YbeY's inclusion in the postulated minimal bacterial genome. However, YbeY is not essential in E. coli although loss of ybeY severely sensitizes it to multiple physiological stresses. Here, we show that YbeY is an essential endoribonuclease in Vibrio cholerae and is crucial for virulence, stress regulation, RNA processing and ribosome quality control, and is part of a core set of RNases essential in most representative pathogens. To understand its function, we analyzed the rRNA and ribosome profiles of a V. cholerae strain partially depleted for YbeY and other RNase mutants associated with 16 S rRNA processing; our results demonstrate that YbeY is also crucial for 16 S rRNA 3′ end maturation in V. cholerae and that its depletion impedes subunit assembly into 70 S ribosomes. YbeY's importance to V. cholerae pathogenesis was demonstrated by the complete loss of mice colonization and biofilm formation, reduced cholera toxin production, and altered expression levels of virulence-associated small RNAs of a V. cholerae strain partially depleted for YbeY. Notably, the ybeY genes of several distantly related pathogens can fully complement an E. coli ΔybeY strain under various stress conditions, demonstrating the high conservation of YbeY's activity in stress regulation. Taken together, this work provides the first comprehensive exploration of YbeY's physiological role in a human pathogen, showing its conserved function across species in essential cellular processes.

Bacteria adapt and survive unfavorable environments by quickly changing their gene expression and physiology, for example as pathogens do during infection of host cells. Gene expression is often determined by RNA turnover, a balance between transcription and RNA decay carried out by multiple RNases. The recently identified RNase YbeY was shown in E. coli to participate in rRNA maturation and 70 S ribosome quality control, however YbeY's roles in other organisms and the extent of functional conservation is unknown. Here, we show that YbeY is an essential RNase in the pathogen Vibrio cholerae, critical for cell fitness and general stress tolerance. We demonstrate that YbeY is crucial for 16 S rRNA 3′ end maturation, assembly of functional 70 S ribosomes and ribosome quality control. Moreover, YbeY regulates virulence-associated small RNAs and its depletion leads to an overall reduction in pathogenesis, exemplified by significantly decreased biofilm formation, mouse colonization and cholera toxin production. We also show that YbeY belongs to a minimal core set of RNases essential in most representative pathogens. The multifaceted roles of YbeY in several essential cellular processes and its highly conserved function across bacterial species, suggest that YbeY could be an attractive new antimicrobial target.

RNA-binding protein-mediated post-transcriptional controls of gene expression: integration of molecular mechanisms at the 3' end of mRNAs?

Initially identified as an occasional and peculiar mode of gene regulation in eukaryotes, RNA-binding protein-mediated post-transcriptional control of gene expression has emerged, over the last two decades, as a major contributor in the control of gene expression. A large variety of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) allows the recognition of very diverse messenger RNA sequences and participates in the regulation of basically all cellular processes. Nevertheless, the rapid outcome of post-transcriptional regulations on the level of gene expression has favored the expansion of this type of regulation in cellular processes prone to rapid and frequent modulations such as the control of the inflammatory response. At the molecular level, the 3'untranslated region (3'UTR) of mRNA is a favored site of RBP recruitment. RBPs binding to these regions control gene expression through two major modes of regulation, namely mRNA decay and modulation of translational activity. Recent progresses suggest that these two mechanisms are often interdependent and might result one from the other. Therefore, different RBPs binding distinct RNA subsets could share similar modes of action at the molecular level. RBPs are frequent targets of post-translational modifications, thereby disclosing numerous possibilities for pharmacological interventions. However, redundancies of the transduction pathways controlling these modifications have limited the perspectives to define RBPs as new therapeutic targets. Through the analysis of several examples of RBPs binding to 3'untranslated region of mRNA, we present here recent progress and perspectives regarding this rapidly evolving field of molecular biology.

Genomic tools to profile antibiotic mode of action

The increasing emergence of antimicrobial multiresistant bacteria is of great concern to public health. While these bacteria are becoming an ever more prominent cause of nosocomial and community-acquired infections worldwide, the antibiotic discovery pipeline has been stalled in the last few years with very few efforts in the research and development of novel antibacterial therapies. Some of the root causes that have hampered current antibiotic drug development are the lack of understanding of the mode of action (MOA) of novel antibiotic molecules and the poor characterization of the bacterial physiological response to antibiotics that ultimately causes resistance. Here, we review how bacterial genetic tools can be applied at the genomic level with the goal of profiling resistance to antibiotics and elucidating antibiotic MOAs. Specifically, we highlight how chemical genomic detection of the MOA of novel antibiotic molecules and antibiotic profiling by next-generation sequencing are leveraging basic antibiotic research to unprecedented levels with great opportunities for knowledge translation.

Inhibition of ribosomal subunit synthesis in Escherichia coli by the vanadyl ribonucleoside complex

The increase in antibiotic-resistant microorganisms has driven a search for new antibiotic targets and novel antimicrobial agents. A large number of different antibiotics target bacterial ribosomal subunit formation. Several specific ribonucleases are important in the processing of rRNA during subunit biogenesis. This work demonstrates that the ribonuclease inhibitor, vanadyl ribonucleoside complex (VRC), can inhibit RNases involved in ribosomal subunit formation. The ribosomal subunit synthesis rate was significantly decreased and ribosomal RNA from the subunit precursors was degraded. VRC had no inhibitory effect on translation. VRC also potentiated the inhibitory effects of an aminoglycoside and a macrolide antibiotic.

Impairment of ribosomal subunit synthesis in aminoglycoside-treated ribonuclease mutants of Escherichia coli

The bacterial ribosome is an important target for many antimicrobial agents. Aminoglycoside antibiotics bind to both 30S and 50S ribosomal subunits, inhibiting translation and subunit formation. During ribosomal subunit biogenesis, ribonucleases (RNases) play an important role in rRNA processing. E. coli cells deficient for specific processing RNases are predicted to have an increased sensitivity to neomycin and paromomycin. Four RNase mutant strains showed an increased growth sensitivity to both aminoglycoside antibiotics. E. coli strains deficient for the rRNA processing enzymes RNase III, RNase E, RNase G or RNase PH showed significantly reduced subunit amounts after antibiotic treatment. A substantial increase in a 16S RNA precursor molecule was observed as well. Ribosomal RNA turnover was stimulated, and an enhancement of 16S and 23S rRNA fragmentation was detected in E. coli cells deficient for these enzymes. This work indicates that bacterial RNases may be novel antimicrobial targets.