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Katzner TE, Pain DJ, McTee M, Brown L, Cuadros S, Pokras M, Slabe VA, Watson RT, Wiemeyer G, Bedrosian B, Hampton JO, Parish CN, Pay JM, Saito K, Schulz JH. Lead poisoning of raptors: state of the science and cross-discipline mitigation options for a global problem. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1672-1699. [PMID: 38693847 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Lead poisoning is an important global conservation problem for many species of wildlife, especially raptors. Despite the increasing number of individual studies and regional reviews of lead poisoning of raptors, it has been over a decade since this information has been compiled into a comprehensive global review. Here, we summarize the state of knowledge of lead poisoning of raptors, we review developments in manufacturing of non-lead ammunition, the use of which can reduce the most pervasive source of lead these birds encounter, and we compile data on voluntary and regulatory mitigation options and their associated sociological context. We support our literature review with case studies of mitigation actions, largely provided by the conservation practitioners who study or manage these efforts. Our review illustrates the growing awareness and understanding of lead exposure of raptors, and it shows that the science underpinning this understanding has expanded considerably in recent years. We also show that the political and social appetite for managing lead ammunition appears to vary substantially across administrative regions, countries, and continents. Improved understanding of the drivers of this variation could support more effective mitigation of lead exposure of wildlife. This review also shows that mitigation strategies are likely to be most effective when they are outcome driven, consider behavioural theory, local cultures, and environmental conditions, effectively monitor participation, compliance, and levels of raptor exposure, and support both environmental and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd E Katzner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 230 North Collins Road, Boise, ID, 83702, USA
| | - Deborah J Pain
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
- Zoology Department, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Michael McTee
- MPG Ranch, 19400 Lower Woodchuck Road, Florence, MT, 59833, USA
| | - Leland Brown
- Oregon Zoo, North American Non-lead Partnership, 4001 SW Canyon Rd, Portland, OR, 97221, USA
| | - Sandra Cuadros
- Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, 410 Summer Valley Rd, Orwigsburg, PA, 17961, USA
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, 1177 Research Road, Kelowna, British Columbia, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Mark Pokras
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Rd, North Grafton, MA, 01536, USA
| | - Vincent A Slabe
- Conservation Science Global, Bozeman, MT, USA
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID, 83709, USA
| | - Richard T Watson
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID, 83709, USA
| | - Guillermo Wiemeyer
- CONICET- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Pampa, Calle 5 esq. 116 MO L6360, Gral. Pico, La Pampa, Argentina
| | | | - Jordan O Hampton
- Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Grattan Street, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150, Australia
| | | | - James M Pay
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Churchill Ave, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Keisuke Saito
- Institute for Raptor Biomedicine Japan 2-2101 Hokuto, Kushiro, Hokkaido, 084-0922, Japan
| | - John H Schulz
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 1111 Rollins St, Columbia, MO, 65203, USA
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Thomas VG, Kanstrup N. Promoting enforcement of non-lead hunting ammunition regulations and compliance in Europe and North America. AMBIO 2023; 52:1350-1358. [PMID: 37079207 PMCID: PMC10272061 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-023-01863-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The direct regulation of lead ammunition in North America and Europe has been mainly for hunting in wetlands. Little support among hunters and the ammunition makers exists for further regulation despite suitable lead substitutes and much education about the known risks to wildlife and human health from ingested lead. In the absence of personnel to detect use of lead ammunition and enforce regulations, hunter compliance is low. Identification of non-lead ammunition using existing electronic technology and an international protocol on the identification of non-lead rifle bullets is proposed to aid enforcement. An explicit definition of the chemical composition of lead substitutes is required in European Union legislation together with a more enforceable distinction between 'possession during hunting' and 'ownership' of lead ammunition. A more transdisciplinary regulatory approach to transitioning to non-lead ammunition is advised. It comprises widespread public health advisories, setting a maximum allowable lead level in commercial game meats in EU legislation, and public communication that emphasizes the benefits of non-lead ammunition use to all categories of wildlife and the public perception of hunting, whether in North America or Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vernon G. Thomas
- Department of Integrative Biology, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Niels Kanstrup
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 8, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Acoustic Monitoring Confirms Significant Poaching Pressure of European Turtle Doves ( Streptopelia turtur) during Spring Migration across the Ionian Islands, Greece. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13040687. [PMID: 36830473 PMCID: PMC9952176 DOI: 10.3390/ani13040687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is an Afro-Palearctic migrant whose populations have declined by 79% from 1980 to 2014. In 2018, the International Single Species Action Plan for the Turtle Dove (ISSAP) was developed with the goal of enabling, by 2028, an increase in turtle dove numbers along each of the three migration flyways (western, central, eastern). To achieve this, the illegal killing of turtle doves, a critical threat to the species, has to be eradicated. The Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece lie on the eastern flyway and are considered a major turtle dove poaching hot-spot during spring migration. Quantifying wildlife crime, however, is challenging. In the absence of a reliable protocol for monitoring spring poaching levels, the agencies tasked with tackling the problem have no means of assessing the effectiveness of the anti-poaching measures and adapting them if required. Using passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) methods, we recorded gun hunting intensity at known turtle dove poaching sites during the 2019-2022 spring migrations (2-10 sites/season) with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution. Based on published gunshot to killed/injured bird ratio for similar species (corroborated with discussions with local hunters) and an estimate of the proportion of hunting sites monitored by our PAM grid (using gunshot detection range estimates from control gunshots), we estimated that in 2021, up to 57,095 turtle doves were killed or injured across five Ionian Islands (Zakynthos, Paxi, Antipaxi, Othoni, and Mathraki). The 2022 estimate was almost half, but it is unclear as to whether the change is due to a decline in poachers or turtle doves. We propose ways of improving confidence in future estimates, and call for a temporary moratorium of autumn turtle dove hunting in Greece-as per ISSAP recommendation-until spring poaching is eradicated and the eastern flyway population shows signs of a full recovery. Finally, we hope our findings will pave the way for the development of PAM grids at turtle dove poaching hot-spots across all migration flyways, contributing to the global conservation of the species.
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Ellis MB, Miller CA, Pallazza SG. The effect of individual harvest on crippling losses. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B. Ellis
- British Association for Shooting and Conservation, Marford Mill, Rossett Wrexham Wales LL12 0HL UK
| | - Craig A. Miller
- Illinois Natural History Survey University of Illinois Champaign IL USA 61820
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Ellis MB, Miller CA. The effect of a ban on the use of lead ammunition for waterfowl hunting on duck and goose crippling rates in Illinois. WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wlb3.01001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Hampton JO, Arnemo JM, Barnsley R, Cattet M, Daoust PY, DeNicola AJ, Eccles G, Fletcher D, Hinds LA, Hunt R, Portas T, Stokke S, Warburton B, Wimpenny C. Animal welfare testing for shooting and darting free-ranging wildlife: a review and recommendations. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1071/wr20107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Several important techniques for managing wildlife rely on ballistics (the behaviour of projectiles), including killing techniques (shooting) as well as capture and marking methods (darting). Because all ballistic techniques have the capacity to harm animals, animal welfare is an important consideration. Standardised testing approaches that have allowed refinement for other physical killing and capture methods (e.g. traps for mammals) have not been applied broadly to ballistic methods. At the same time, new technology is becoming available for shooting (e.g. subsonic and lead-free ammunition) and darting (e.g. dye-marker darts). We present several case studies demonstrating (a) how basic ballistic testing can be performed for novel firearms and/or projectiles, (b) the benefits of identifying methods producing undesirable results before operational use, and (c) the welfare risks associated with bypassing testing of a technique before broad-scale application. Following the approach that has been used internationally to test kill-traps, we suggest the following four-step testing process: (1) range and field testing to confirm accuracy and precision, the delivery of appropriate kinetic energy levels and projectile behaviour, (2) post-mortem assessment of ballistic injury in cadavers, (3) small-scale live animal pilot studies with predetermined threshold pass/fail levels, and (4) broad-scale use with reporting of the frequency of adverse animal welfare outcomes. We present this as a practical approach for maintaining and improving animal welfare standards when considering the use of ballistic technology for wildlife management.
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Schulz JH, Wilhelm Stanis SA, Hall DM, Webb EB. Until It's a regulation It's not my fight: Complexities of a voluntary nonlead hunting ammunition program. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 277:111438. [PMID: 33027735 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Wildlife and human health are at risk of lead exposure from spent hunting ammunition. Lead exposure persists for bald eagles due to bullet fragments in game animal gut piles and unretrieved carcasses, and is also a human health risk when wild game is procured using lead ammunition. Programs encouraging the voluntary use of nonlead ammunition have become a popular approach mitigating these effects. This study explored attitudes and experiences of United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) staff implementing an outreach program encouraging deer hunters to voluntary use nonlead ammunition on 54 National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs) in the Upper Midwest, U.S. to understand factors affecting program implementation. We conducted 29 semi-structured interviews of USFWS staff along with 60 responses from an open-ended survey question. Twelve themes emerged from the data and were grouped into three broad categories: (1) challenges of dealing with complex issues, (2) importance of messengers and messages, and (3) resistance from staff. Challenges of dealing with complex issues included administrative restraint and uncertainty, scope and scale of program, human health not an agency responsibility, contextual political influences, and public-private collaborations. Importance of messengers and messages included the importance of experience, and salience of human health risk. Finally, resistance from staff included skepticism of the science and motives behind the program, competing priorities for refuge staff, differing perceptions of regulatory and voluntary approaches, cost and availability of nonlead ammunition, and disregard by some about lead ammunition and human health risks. Staff identified numerous challenges implementing the program, many of which were external factors beyond the control of the participants. Understanding the factors affecting program implementation may help guide future efforts encouraging the voluntary use of nonlead ammunition.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H Schulz
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 105 Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Building, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
| | - Sonja A Wilhelm Stanis
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 105 Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Building, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
| | - Damon M Hall
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 105 Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Building, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA; Biomedical, Biological and Chemical Engineering, University of Missouri, 215 Agriculture Engineering Building, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
| | - Elisabeth B Webb
- U.S. Geological Survey, Missouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, 302 Anheuser-Busch Natural Resources Building, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
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Hampton JO, DeNicola AJ, Forsyth DM. Assessment of Lead‐Free .22 LR Bullets for Shooting European Rabbits. WILDLIFE SOC B 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David M. Forsyth
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries GPO Box 1967 Orange New South Wales Australia
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of New South Wales Sydney New South Wales 2052 Australia
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Kanstrup N. Lessons learned from 33 years of lead shot regulation in Denmark. AMBIO 2019; 48:999-1008. [PMID: 30506141 PMCID: PMC6675819 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-018-1125-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Denmark was the first European country to completely ban lead shot for hunting and target shooting. This paper reviews the process behind this phase-out to document its history, successes, and pitfalls, and to make the Danish experiences accessible for the benefit of other countries, authorities, and stakeholders who face nature management challenges implementing similar change. A review of the content of magazines published by the three hunters' organizations during the 1978-1992 transition period was carried out, to assess the general discourse and identify the primary concerns and attitudes during the phase-out of lead shot for hunting in Denmark. Hunters were initially negative towards the change. Resistance was driven by concern about the quality, safety issues, and expensive cost of non-toxic alternatives, compounded by lack of organizational leadership and tensions between stakeholders. As a result of the widening appreciation of the environmental effects of dispersed lead shot and the introduction of new generations of alternative shot types, hunter attitudes became positive and constructive. Change need not pose an obstruction to continued hunting opportunity. On the contrary, it is believed that the value from the enhancement of the public image of hunters resulting from the reduction in the environmental dispersal of a recognized contaminant is of paramount importance for the long-term political sustainability of hunting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels Kanstrup
- Institute for Bioscience - Kalø, Aarhus University, Grenåvej 14, 8410, Rønde, Denmark.
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Thomas VG, Kanstrup N, Fox AD. The transition to non-lead sporting ammunition and fishing weights: Review of progress and barriers to implementation. AMBIO 2019; 48:925-934. [PMID: 30607717 PMCID: PMC6675838 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-018-1132-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
This review presents evidence of lead exposure and toxicity to wildlife and humans from spent shotgun and rifle ammunition and fishing weights, and the barriers and bridges to completing the transition to non-lead products. Despite the international availability of effective non-lead substitutes, and that more jurisdictions are adopting suitable policies and regulations, a broader transition to non-lead alternatives is prevented because resolution remains divided among disparate human user constituencies. Progress has occurred only where evidence is most compelling or where a responsible public authority with statutory powers has managed to change mindsets in the wider public interest. Arguments opposing lead bans are shown to lack validity. Differing national regulations impede progress, requiring analysis to achieve better regulation. Evidence that lead bans have reduced wildlife exposure should be used more to promote sustainable hunting and fishing. Evidence of the lead contribution from hunted game to human exposure should shape policy and regulation to end lead ammunition use. The Special Issue presents evidence that a transition to non-lead products is both warranted and feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vernon G. Thomas
- Department of Integrative Biology, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Niels Kanstrup
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Kalø, Grenåvej 14, 8410 Rønde, Denmark
| | - Anthony D. Fox
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Kalø, Grenåvej 14, 8410 Rønde, Denmark
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Schulz JH, Wilhelm Stanis SA, Webb EB, Li CJ, Hall DM. Communication strategies for reducing lead poisoning in wildlife and human health risks. WILDLIFE SOC B 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John H. Schulz
- School of Natural ResourcesUniversity of Missouri105 Anheuser‐Busch Natural Resources BuildingColumbiaMO65211USA
| | - Sonja A. Wilhelm Stanis
- School of Natural ResourcesUniversity of Missouri105 Anheuser‐Busch Natural Resources BuildingColumbiaMO65211USA
| | - Elisabeth B. Webb
- U.S. Geological SurveyMissouri Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit302 Anheuser‐Busch Natural Resources BuildingColumbiaMO65211USA
| | - Christine Jie Li
- School of Natural ResourcesUniversity of Missouri105 Anheuser‐Busch Natural Resources BuildingColumbiaMO65211USA
| | - Damon M. Hall
- School of Natural Resources & Department of BioengineeringUniversity of Missouri105 Anheuser‐Busch Natural Resources BuildingColumbiaMO65211USA
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Thomas VG. Rationale for the regulated transition to non-lead products in Canada: A policy discussion paper. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 649:839-845. [PMID: 30179814 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Revised: 08/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Lead gunshot, rifle bullets, and fishing weights are still allowed in Canadian provincially-regulated hunting and fishing, despite the contribution to lead exposure in humans, wildlife, and the environment. Non-lead gunshot and fishing weights are required in Canada only for waterfowl hunting, and angling in national parks and national wildlife areas. Lead wheel weights are also allowed and comprise a majority of the Canadian market. Effective non-lead substitutes for these products exist, and are already required in various American and European jurisdictions. Several analyses commissioned by the Canadian government in 2018 identified the problems of lead exposure attributable to these four lead products. Lead is already listed under Schedule 1 of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) that authorizes the government to undertake measures to reduce exposure. CEPA could require, simultaneously, use of non-lead ammunition, fishing weights and wheel weights at the national level, following an appropriate phase-in period. The low provincial and territorial licence fees for hunting and fishing in Canada would offset any costs associated with use of lead substitutes. Costs for non-lead wheel weights would comprise a small percentage of the costs of new vehicles and new tire purchases. This regulatory initiative would complement other Canadian national bans on lead products. Because there is no safe threshold level for blood lead, use of non-lead products would benefit the health of humans, scavengers, upland game species, and fish-eating birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vernon G Thomas
- Department of Integrative Biology, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.
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Hampton JO, Laidlaw M, Buenz E, Arnemo JM. Heads in the sand: public health and ecological risks of lead-based bullets for wildlife shooting in Australia. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.1071/wr17180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) is a toxic element banned from fuel, paint and many other products in most developed countries. Nonetheless, it is still widely used in ammunition, including rifle bullets, and Pb-based bullets are almost universally used in Australia. For decades, poisoning from Pb shot (shotguns) has been recognised as a cause of disease in waterfowl and Pb shot has been subsequently banned for waterfowl hunting in many jurisdictions. However, the risks posed by Pb-based bullets (rifles) have not been similarly recognised in Australia. Pb-based rifle bullets frequently fragment, contaminating the tissue of shot animals. Consuming this Pb-contaminated tissue risks harmful Pb exposure and, thus, the health of wildlife scavengers (carrion eaters) and humans and their companion animals who consume harvested meat (game eaters). In Europe, North America and elsewhere, the environmental and human health risks of Pb-based bullets are widely recognised, and non-toxic alternatives (e.g. copper-based bullets) are increasingly being used. However, Australia has no comparable research despite widespread use of shooting, common scavenging by potentially susceptible wildlife species, and people regularly consuming shot meat. We conclude that Australia has its collective ‘head in the sand’ on this pressing worldwide One Health issue. We present the need for urgent research into this field in Australia.
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Hampton JO, Adams PJ, Forsyth DM, Cowled BD, Stuart IG, Hyndman TH, Collins T. Improving animal welfare in wildlife shooting: The importance of projectile energy. WILDLIFE SOC B 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter J. Adams
- Murdoch University; 90 South Street Murdoch WA 6150 Australia
| | - David M. Forsyth
- Vertebrate Pest Research Unit; NSW Department of Primary Industries; 1447 Forest Road Orange NSW 2800 Australia
- The University of Melbourne; Parkville VIC 3010 Australia
| | | | - Ivor G. Stuart
- Kingfisher Research; 177 Progress Road Eltham VIC 3089 Australia
| | - Tim H. Hyndman
- Murdoch University; 90 South Street Murdoch WA 6150 Australia
| | - Teresa Collins
- Murdoch University; 90 South Street Murdoch WA 6150 Australia
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