Fluid mechanical modeling of the upper urinary tract

Kidney Stones as Minerals: How Methods from Geology Could Inform Urolithiasis Treatment

Despite the recent advances in minimally invasive surgery, kidney stones still pose a significant clinical challenge due to their high recurrence rate of 50% in 5-10 years after the first stone episode. Using the methods of geosciences and biology, the GeoBioMed approach treats kidney stones as biogenic minerals, offering a novel perspective on their formation and dissolution processes. In this review, we discuss kidney stones' structural and mechanical properties as emerging biomarkers of urolithiasis, emphasizing the importance of a comprehensive stone analysis in developing personalized treatment strategies. By focusing on unexplored properties like crystalline architecture, porosity, permeability, cleavage, and fracture, alongside the conventionally used composition and morphology, we show how these stone characteristics influence the treatment efficacy and the disease recurrence. This review also highlights the potential of advanced imaging techniques to uncover novel biomarkers, contributing to a deeper understanding of stone pathogenesis. We discuss how the interdisciplinary collaboration within the GeoBioMed approach aims to enhance the diagnostic accuracy, improve the treatment outcomes, and reduce the recurrence of urolithiasis.

Animal study on factors influencing anterograde renal pelvis perfusion manometry

Objects

Anterograde renal pelvis perfusion manometry is an effective method to assist in the diagnosis of upper urinary tract obstruction.

Methods

To established a rat model of partial ureteral obstruction to explore the perfusion rate, renal pelvis volume, obstruction sites, contralateral upper urinary tract, and lower urinary tract functions, which may affect anterograde renal pelvis perfusion manometry. To measure the renal pelvis volume using ultrasound. Depending on whether clamped the contralateral ureter and it continuously emptied the bladder, perfused the renal pelvis at rate of 15, 30, 60, 90, or 120 mL/h to measure the pressure synchronously.

Results

The research showed the renal pelvis volume of UPJ and UVJ at 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks respectively, significantly increased compared with the control group. Comparison of the renal pelvis volume between the UPJ and UVJ groups was not statistically significant. The renal pelvis pressure of UPJ and UVJ was significantly increased compared with the control group, and the UVJ group was greater than the UPJ group. The renal pelvic pressure increased as the perfusion rate increased. Comparing the renal pelvis pressure measured using synchronous bladder emptying with the renal pelvis pressure measured singly, the difference was statistically significant. Comparing the renal pelvis pressure measured using synchronous bladder emptying with measured with a clamped contralateral ureter, the difference was not statistically significant; however, in some groups, the difference was statistically significant. Measuring the renal pelvis pressure singly and clamping the contralateral ureter, the difference was not statistically significant, except in some groups, the difference was significant.

Conclusion

The study suggested that ureter obstruction sites, perfusion rates, renal pelvis volumes, and synchronous bladder emptying affects the renal pelvis pressure. The function of the contralateral upper urinary tract did not affect renal pelvis pressure in the short term.

In silico assessment of the reliability and performance of artificial sphincter for urinary incontinence

BACKGROUND

The standard artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) is an implantable device for the treatment of urinary incontinence by applying a pressure loading around the urethra through an inflatable cuff, often inducing no-physiological stimulation up to tissue degenerative phenomena. A novel in silico approach is proposed to fill the gap of the traditional procedures by providing tools to quantitatively assess AUS reliability and performance based on AUS-urethra interaction.

METHODS

The approach requires the development of 3D numerical models of AUS and urethra, and experimental investigations to define their mechanical behaviors. Computational analyses are performed to simulate the urethral lumen occlusion by AUS inflation under different pressures, and the lumen opening by applying an intraluminal pressure progressively increased under the AUS action (Abaqus Explicit solver). The AUS reliability is evaluated in terms of tissue stimulation by the mechanical fields potentially responsible for vasoconstriction and tissue damage, while the performance by the intraluminal pressure that causes the lumen opening for a specific occlusive pressure, showing the maximum urethral pressure for which continence is guaranteed.

RESULTS

The present study implemented the procedure considering the gold standard AMS 800 and a novel patented AUS. Results provided the comparison between two sphincteric devices and the evaluation of the influence of different building materials and geometrical features on the AUS functionality.

CONCLUSIONS

The approach was developed for the AUS, but it could be adapted also to artificial sphincters for the treatment of other anatomical dysfunctions, widening the analyzable device configurations and reducing experimental and ethical efforts.

Effects of size and shape of the side holes of a double J stent on the ureter fluid flow after stenosis

The effect of side holes morphology changes in double J stent (DJS) on encrustation was analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). We analyzed DJS side holes with inner diameter of 1 mm and outer diameters of 1 (type A), 1.2 (type B) and 1.4 (type C) mm, respectively. Concentric stenosis with three intraureteral degree (0%, 12%, and 88%) was analyzed. The flow rate, shear stress and wall shear stress (WSS) distribution were investigated. Urine flow through SH1 before the ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) differed based on the ureteral stenosis degree. The sum of flow rates through the SHs increased with diameter. In the stented ureter with 12% stenosis, the flow rate through SH1 approximately doubled than that without ureteral stenosis, and the flow rate through SH1 was maximal for the type 'C' stent in both 12% and 88% ureteral stenosis. The mean shear stress in the SHs increased with the degree of stenosis. The WSS around the SHs was higher for type 'C' than types A and B. From the flow rates and shear stresses in and around the SHs, the larger SH diameter of the DJS from the UPJ to mid-ureter is expected to induce encrustation reduction, especially in patients with urinary lithiasis.

Is the time right for a new initiative in mathematical modeling of the lower urinary tract? ICI-RS 2023

INTRODUCTION

A session at the 2023 International Consultation on Incontinence - Research Society (ICI-RS) held in Bristol, UK, focused on the question: Is the time right for a new initiative in mathematical modeling of the lower urinary tract (LUT)? The LUT is a complex system, comprising various synergetic components (i.e., bladder, urethra, neural control), each with its own dynamic functioning and high interindividual variability. This has led to a variety of different types of models for different purposes, each with advantages and disadvantages.

METHODS

When addressing the LUT, the modeling approach should be selected and sized according to the specific purpose, the targeted level of detail, and the available computational resources. Four areas were selected as examples to discuss: utility of nomograms in clinical use, value of fluid mechanical modeling, applications of models to simplify urodynamics, and utility of statistical models.

RESULTS

A brief literature review is provided along with discussion of the merits of different types of models for different applications. Remaining research questions are provided.

CONCLUSIONS

Inadequacies in current (outdated) models of the LUT as well as recent advances in computing power (e.g., quantum computing) and methods (e.g., artificial intelligence/machine learning), would dictate that the answer is an emphatic "Yes, the time is right for a new initiative in mathematical modeling of the LUT."

Evaluation of renovated double J stents using ureter models with and without stenosis

PURPOSE

Commercial double J stents (DJS) have a uniform shape regardless of the specific nature of various ureteral diseases. We tested renovated DJS and compared them with conventional DJS using ureter models.

METHODS

One straight ureter model included stenosis at the distal ureter near the ureterovesical junction and the other did not. We used conventional DJS and renovated 5- and 6-Fr soft DJS for ureter stones and 6-, 7-, and 8.5-Fr hard DJS for tumors. The DJS comprised holes in the upper, middle, or lower one-third of the shaft (length, 24 cm; 2-cm-diameter coils at both ends). More holes were created along the shaft based on the ureteral disease location. Conventional DJS had holes spaced 1 cm apart along the shaft. Renovated DJS had holes spaced 1 cm apart along the shaft with 0.5-cm intervals on the upper, middle, or lower one-third of the shaft. Urine flow was evaluated.

RESULTS

As the DJS diameter increased, the flow rate decreased. The flow rates of DJS with holes in the lower shaft were relatively lower than those of conventional DJS and DJS with holes in the upper and middle shafts. In the ureter model without stenosis, 6-, 7-, and 8.5-Fr renovated stents exhibited significantly higher flow rates than conventional stents. In the ureter model with stenosis, 5-, 6-, 7-, and 8.5-Fr renovated stents did not exhibit significantly higher flow rates than conventional stents.

CONCLUSION

Renovated stents and conventional stents did not exhibit significant differences in urine flow with stenosis.

Numerical analysis of an obstacle motion in the human ureter using the dynamic mesh approach

Peristalsis is a common motion in various biological systems, especially the upper urinary tract, where it plays a pivotal role in conveying urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Using computational fluid dynamics, this study aims to investigate the effect of various peristaltic parameters on the motion of an obstacle through a two-dimensional ureter. Methodologically, Incompressible Navier-Stokes equations were utilized as the fluid domain's governing equations, and the Dynamic Mesh method (DM) was employed to simulate the peristaltic and obstacle motion. The peristaltic motion was modeled by a sinusoidal contraction wave propagating alongside the ureter at the physiological speed, and the motion of the obstruction through the ureter, which is caused by the fluid forces applied on its surface, was explored using the equation of Newton's second law. Various test cases of different shapes and sizes were supposed as kidney stones to understand the influence of the peristalsis properties on the stone removal process. The results show that the motion of the kidney stone is highly influenced by the gradient pressure force applied to its surface in the fluid domain. Moreover, investigating the effects of the peristaltic physical properties on the obstacle's motion indicates that the stone's motion is dependent on these parameters. Furthermore, this analysis provides insight into the peristaltic motion effects, assisting physicians in developing new medicines to facilitate the kidney stone removal process based on its shape and size.

Peristalsis prevents ureteral dilation

PURPOSE

The etiology of ureteral dilation in primary nonrefluxing, nonobstructing megaureters is still not well understood. Impaired ureteral peristalsis has been theorized as one of the contributing factors. However, ureteral peristalsis and its "normal" function is not well defined. In this study, using mathematical modeling techniques, we aim to better understand how ureteral peristalsis works. This is the first model to consider clinically observed, back-and-forth, cyclic wall longitudinal motion during peristalsis. We hypothesize that dysfunctional ureteral peristalsis, caused by insufficient peristaltic amplitudes (e.g., circular muscle dysfunction) and/or lack of ureteral wall longitudinal motion (e.g., longitudinal muscle dysfunction), promotes peristaltic reflux (i.e., retrograde flow of urine during an episode of peristalsis) and may result in urinary stasis, urine accumulation, and consequent dilation.

METHODS

Based on lubrication theory in fluid mechanics, we developed a two-dimensional (planar) model of ureteral peristalsis. In doing so, we treated ureteral peristalsis as an infinite train of sinusoidal waves. We then analyzed antegrade and retrograde flows in the ureter under different bladder-kidney differential pressure and peristalsis conditions.

RESULTS

There is a minimum peristaltic amplitude required to prevent peristaltic reflux. Ureteral wall longitudinal motion decreases this minimum required amplitude, increasing the nonrefluxing range of peristaltic amplitudes. As an example, for a normal bladder-kidney differential pressure of 5 cmH2 O, ureteral wall longitudinal motion increases nonrefluxing range of peristaltic amplitude by 65%. Additionally, ureteral wall longitudinal motion decreases refluxing volumetric flow rates. For a similar normal bladder pressure example of 5 cmH2 O, refluxing volumetric flow rate decreases by a factor of 18. Finally, elevated bladder pressure, not only increases the required peristaltic amplitude for reflux prevention but it increases maximum refluxing volumetric flow rates. For the case without wall longitudinal motion, as bladder-kidney differential pressure increases from 5 to 40 cmH2 O, minimum required peristaltic amplitude to prevent reflux increases by 40% while the maximum refluxing volumetric flow rate increases by approximately 100%.

CONCLUSION

The results presented in this study show how abnormal ureteral peristalsis, caused by the absence of wall longitudinal motion and/or lack of sufficient peristaltic amplitudes, facilitates peristaltic reflux and retrograde flow. We theorize that this retrograde flow can lead to urinary stasis and urine accumulation in the ureters, resulting in ureteral dilation seen on imaging studies and elevated infection risk. Our results also show how chronically elevated bladder pressures are more susceptible to such refluxing conditions that could lead to ureteral dilation.

Correlation of procalcitonin and c-reactive protein levels with pathogen distribution and infection localization in urinary tract infections

Aimed to explore the relationships between infection localization, bacterial species, and procalcitonin (PCT) and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels in urinary tract infections (UTIs). A retrospective study included 314 UTI hospitalized patients divided into two groups (268 with lower UTI, 46 with upper UTI) in a tertiary care hospital. PCT and CRP were performed. Bacterial isolates were identified using standard microbiological techniques, and statistical analyses were performed to assess associations between infection localization, bacterial species, PCT, and CRP levels. Age and gender showed no significant differences between the lower and upper UTIs. Escherichia coli dominated as the leading UTI pathogen. A positive correlation (r = 0.646, P < 0.001) between PCT and CRP levels was found. The subgroup with ureteritis in the upper UTI category exhibited the highest PCT and CRP levels. PCT and CRP exhibited favorable diagnostic potential in predicting upper UTIs, with AUCs of 0.644 and 0.629, respectively. The optimal cutoff values were 0.21 ng/mL for PCT and 60.77 mg/L for CRP. Sensitivities were 69.03% and 77.99%, while specificities were 56.52% and 47.83%, respectively. E. coli emerged as the predominant bacterium in UTIs. PCT and CRP demonstrated moderate diagnostic efficacy in distinguishing between upper and lower UTIs. Notably, PCT and CRP exhibited enhanced utility in identifying ureteritis.

Rheotaxis in Mycoplasma gliding

This review describes the upstream-directed movement in the small parasitic bacterium Mycoplasma. Many Mycoplasma species exhibit gliding motility, a form of biological motion over surfaces without the aid of general surface appendages such as flagella. The gliding motility is characterized by a constant unidirectional movement without changes in direction or backward motion. Unlike flagellated bacteria, Mycoplasma lacks the general chemotactic signaling system to control their moving direction. Therefore, the physiological role of directionless travel in Mycoplasma gliding remains unclear. Recently, high-precision measurements under an optical microscope have revealed that three species of Mycoplasma exhibited rheotaxis, that is, the direction of gliding motility is lead upstream by the water flow. This intriguing response appears to be optimized for the flow patterns encountered at host surfaces. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the morphology, behavior, and habitat of Mycoplasma gliding, and discusses the possibility that the rheotaxis is ubiquitous among them.

Effect of ureteral stent length and implantation position on migration after implantation

BACKGROUND

Ureteral obstruction is a urinary system disease that causes urinary retention, renal injury, renal colic, and infection. Ureteral stents are often used for conservative treatment in clinics, and their migration usually results in ureteral stent failure. The migrations include proximal migration to the kidney side and distal migration to the bladder side, but the biomechanism of stent migration is still unknown.

METHOD

Finite element models of stents with lengths from 6-30 cm were developed. The stents were implanted into the middle of the ureter to analyze the effect of stent length on its migration, and the effect of stent implantation position on 6-cm-long stent migration was also observed. The stents' maximum axial displacement was used to assess the ease of stent migration. A time-varying pressure was applied to the ureter outer wall to simulate peristalsis. The stent and ureter adopted friction contact conditions. The two ends of the ureter were fixed. The radial displacement of the ureter was used to evaluate the effect of the stent on peristalsis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The maximum migration occurs in the positive direction for a 6-cm-long stent implanted at the proximal ureter (CD and DE), but in the negative direction at the distal ureter (FG and GH). The 6-cm-long stent demonstrated almost no effect on ureteral peristalsis. The 12-cm-long stent diminished the radial displacement of the ureter from 3-5 s. The 18-cm stent diminished the radial displacement of the ureter from 0-8 s, and the radial displacement within 2-6 s was weaker than other time. The 24-cm stent diminished the radial displacement of the ureter from 0-8 s, and the radial displacement within 1-7 s was weaker than other time.

CONCLUSION

The biomechanism of stent migration and ureteral peristalsis weakening after stent implantation was explored. Shorter stents were more likely to migrate. The implantation position had less influence on ureteral peristalsis compared with the stent length, which provided a reference for stent design aimed at reducing stent migration. Stent length was the main factor affecting ureteral peristalsis. This study provides a reference for the study of ureteral peristalsis.

Fluid mechanical performance of ureteral stents: The role of side hole and lumen size

Ureteral stents are indispensable devices in urological practice to maintain and reinstate the drainage of urine in the upper urinary tract. Most ureteral stents feature openings in the stent wall, referred to as side holes (SHs), which are designed to facilitate urine flux in and out of the stent lumen. However, systematic discussions on the role of SH and stent lumen size in regulating flux and shear stress levels are still lacking. In this study, we leveraged both experimental and numerical methods, using microscopic-Particle Image Velocimetry and Computational Fluid Dynamic models, respectively, to explore the influence of varying SH and lumen diameters. Our results showed that by reducing the SH diameter from 1.1 to 0.4 mm the median wall shear stress levels of the SHs near the ureteropelvic junction and ureterovesical junction increased by over 150 % , even though the flux magnitudes through these SH decreased by about 40 % . All other SHs were associated with low flux and low shear stress levels. Reducing the stent lumen diameter significantly impeded the luminal flow and the flux through SHs. By means of zero-dimensional models and scaling relations, we summarized previous findings on the subject and argued that the design of stent inlet/outlet is key in regulating the flow characteristics described above. Finally, we offered some clinically relevant input in terms of choosing the right stent for the right patient.

An in vitro bladder model with physiological dynamics: Vesicoureteral reflux alters stent encrustation pattern

In vitro models are indispensable to study the physio-mechanical characteristics of the urinary tract and to evaluate ureteral stent performances. Yet previous models mimicking the urinary bladder have been limited to static or complicated systems. In this study, we designed a simple in vitro bladder model to simulate the dynamics of filling and voiding. The physio-mechanical condition of the model was verified using a pressure-flow test with different bladder outlet obstruction levels, and a reflux test was performed to qualitatively demonstrate the stent associated vesicoureteral reflux (VUR). Finally, the setup was applied with and without the bladder model to perform encrustation tests with artificial urine on commercially available double-J stents, and the volumes of luminal encrustations were quantified using micro-Computed Tomography and image segmentation. Our results suggest that, VUR is an important factor contributing to the dynamics in the upper urinary tract with indwelling stents, especially in patients with higher bladder outlet obstruction levels. The influence of VUR should be properly addressed in future in vitro studies and clinical analyses.

Computational simulation of the flow dynamic field in a porous ureteric stent

Ureteric stents are employed clinically to manage urinary obstructions or other pathological conditions. Stents made of porous and biodegradable materials have gained increasing interest, because of their excellent biocompatibility and the potential for overcoming the so-called ‘forgotten stent syndrome’. However, there is very limited characterisation of their flow dynamic performance. In this study, a CFD model of the occluded and unoccluded urinary tract was developed to investigate the urinary flow dynamics in the presence of a porous ureteric stent. With increasing the permeability of the porous material (i.e., from 10⁻¹⁸ to 10⁻¹⁰ m²) both the total mass flow rate through the ureter and the average fluid velocity within the stent increased. In the unoccluded ureter, the total mass flow rate increased of 7.7% when a porous stent with permeability of 10⁻¹⁰ m² was employed instead of an unporous stent. Drainage performance further improved in the presence of a ureteral occlusion, with the porous stent resulting in 10.2% greater mass flow rate compared to the unporous stent. Findings from this study provide fundamental insights into the flow performance of porous ureteric stents, with potential utility in the development pipeline of these medical devices.

Cell shape controls rheotaxis in small parasitic bacteria

Mycoplasmas, a group of small parasitic bacteria, adhere to and move across host cell surfaces. The role of motility across host cell surfaces in pathogenesis remains unclear. Here, we used optical microscopy to visualize rheotactic behavior in three phylogenetically distant species of Mycoplasma using a microfluidic chamber that enabled the application of precisely controlled fluid flow. We show that directional movements against fluid flow occur synchronously with the polarized cell orienting itself to be parallel against the direction of flow. Analysis of depolarized cells revealed that morphology itself functions as a sensor to recognize rheological properties that mimic those found on host-cell surfaces. These results demonstrate the vital role of cell morphology and motility in responding to mechanical forces encountered in the native environment.

The small, parasitic bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae attaches to, and moves over, host cell surfaces. Adherence to host surfaces and motility are critical for the pathogenicity of M. pneumoniae. The role of motility by M. pneumoniae in vivo, however, is poorly understood. Host airways generate constant fluid flow toward the mouth as part of their defense against pathogens and irritants. Consequently, pulmonary invaders must counter the rheological forces found in host airways in order to successfully colonize the host. Here, we demonstrate that M. pneumoniae exhibits directional movement against fluid flow. These findings suggest there is a vital role for rheotactic motility that has evolved in order to overcome host defense mechanisms such as mucociliary clearance.

The accumulation of particles in ureteric stents is mediated by flow dynamics: Full-scale computational and experimental modeling of the occluded and unoccluded ureter

Ureteric stents are clinically deployed to restore urinary drainage in the presence of ureteric occlusions. They consist of a hollow tube with multiple side-holes that enhance urinary drainage. The stent surface is often subject to encrustation (induced by crystals-forming bacteria such as Proteus mirabilis) or particle accumulation, which may compromise stent's drainage performance. Limited research has, however, been conducted to evaluate the relationship between flow dynamics and accumulation of crystals in stents. Here, we employed a full-scale architecture of the urinary system to computationally investigate the flow performance of a ureteric stent and experimentally determine the level of particle accumulation over the stent surface. Particular attention was given to side-holes, as they play a pivotal role in enhancing urinary drainage. Results demonstrated that there exists an inverse correlation between wall shear stress (WSS) and crystal accumulation at side-holes. Specifically, side-holes with greater WSS levels were those characterized by inter-compartmental fluid exchange between the stent and ureter. These "active" side-holes were located either nearby ureteric obstructions or at regions characterized by a physiological constriction of the ureter. Results also revealed that the majority of side-holes (>60%) suffer from low WSS levels and are, thus, prone to crystals accumulation. Moreover, side-holes located toward the proximal region of the ureter presented lower WSS levels compared to more distal ones, thus suffering from greater particle accumulation. Overall, findings corroborate the role of WSS in modulating the localization and extent of particle accumulation in ureteric stents.