1
|
Zhang Z, Khanal N, Dykstra AB, Daris K. Stop-Codon Readthrough in Therapeutic Protein Candidates Expressed from Mammalian Cells. J Pharm Sci 2024; 113:1498-1505. [PMID: 38342339 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2024.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Stop codon readthroughs were examined in 48 recombinant therapeutic protein candidates produced from multiple clones of Chinese hamster ovary cells, using peptide mapping with LC-MS/MS detection. We found that stop codon readthrough is a common phenomenon occurring in most of these candidates, with levels varying from below the detection limit of ∼0.001 % to ∼1 %. The readthrough propensity depends on the stop codon being used, as well as the nucleotides surrounding it. The amino acids misincorporated into the stop position can be well-predicted by a third-base wobble mismatch and a first-base U/G mismatch during codon recognition, i.e., tyrosine or glutamine insertion for the UAA and UAG stop codons, and tryptophan, cysteine or arginine insertion for the UGA stop codon. Data shown in this report demonstrate the importance of optimizing the DNA sequence near the stop codon, and the importance of detecting stop codon readthroughs during the development of a therapeutic product.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhongqi Zhang
- Process Development, Amgen Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA 91320, USA.
| | - Neelam Khanal
- Process Development, Amgen Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA 91320, USA
| | | | - Kristi Daris
- Process Development, Amgen Inc. Thousand Oaks, CA 91320, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Isaacson JR, Berg MD, Yeung W, Villén J, Brandl CJ, Moehring AJ. Impact of tRNA-induced proline-to-serine mistranslation on the transcriptome of Drosophila melanogaster. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.08.593249. [PMID: 38766246 PMCID: PMC11100759 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.08.593249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Mistranslation is the misincorporation of an amino acid into a polypeptide. Mistranslation has diverse effects on multicellular eukaryotes and is implicated in several human diseases. In Drosophila melanogaster, a serine transfer RNA (tRNA) that misincorporates serine at proline codons (P→S) affects male and female flies differently. The mechanisms behind this discrepancy are currently unknown. Here, we compare the transcriptional response of male and female flies to P→S mistranslation to identify genes and cellular processes that underlie sex-specific differences. Both males and females downregulate genes associated with various metabolic processes in response to P→S mistranslation. Males downregulate genes associated with extracellular matrix organization and response to negative stimuli such as wounding, whereas females downregulate aerobic respiration and ATP synthesis genes. Both sexes upregulate genes associated with gametogenesis, but females also upregulate cell cycle and DNA repair genes. These observed differences in the transcriptional response of male and female flies to P→S mistranslation have important implications for the sex-specific impact of mistranslation on disease and tRNA therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew D. Berg
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 98195
| | - William Yeung
- Department of Biology, Western University, N6A 5B7, London, Canada
| | - Judit Villén
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 98195
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Son S, Park M, Kim J, Lee K. ACE mRNA (Additional Chimeric Element incorporated IVT mRNA) for Enhancing Protein Expression by Modulating Immunogenicity. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2307541. [PMID: 38447169 PMCID: PMC11095206 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202307541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
The development of in vitro transcribed mRNA (IVT mRNA)-based therapeutics/vaccines depends on the management of IVT mRNA immunogenicity. IVT mRNA, which is used for intracellular protein translation, often triggers unwanted immune responses, interfering with protein expression and leading to reduced therapeutic efficacy. Currently, the predominant approach for mitigating immune responses involves the incorporation of costly chemically modified nucleotides like pseudouridine (Ψ) or N1-methylpseudouridine (m1Ψ) into IVT mRNA, raising concerns about expense and the potential misincorporation of amino acids into chemically modified codon sequences. Here, an Additional Chimeric Element incorporated mRNA (ACE mRNA), a novel approach incorporating two segments within a single IVT mRNA structure, is introduced. The first segment retains conventional IVT mRNA components prepared with unmodified nucleotides, while the second, comprised of RNA/DNA chimeric elements, aims to modulate immunogenicity. Notably, ACE mRNA demonstrates a noteworthy reduction in immunogenicity of unmodified IVT mRNA, concurrently demonstrating enhanced protein expression efficiency. The reduced immune responses are based on the ability of RNA/DNA chimeric elements to restrict retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and stimulator of interferon genes (STING)-mediated immune activation. The developed ACE mRNA shows great potential in modulating the immunogenicity of IVT mRNA without the need for chemically modified nucleotides, thereby advancing the safety and efficacy of mRNA-based therapeutics/vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sora Son
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesGyeongsang National UniversityJinjuGyeongsangnam‐do52828Republic of Korea
| | - Minsa Park
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesGyeongsang National UniversityJinjuGyeongsangnam‐do52828Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesGyeongsang National UniversityJinjuGyeongsangnam‐do52828Republic of Korea
| | - Kyuri Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical SciencesGyeongsang National UniversityJinjuGyeongsangnam‐do52828Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Girodat D, Wieden HJ, Blanchard SC, Sanbonmatsu KY. Geometric alignment of aminoacyl-tRNA relative to catalytic centers of the ribosome underpins accurate mRNA decoding. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5582. [PMID: 37696823 PMCID: PMC10495418 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40404-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Accurate protein synthesis is determined by the two-subunit ribosome's capacity to selectively incorporate cognate aminoacyl-tRNA for each mRNA codon. The molecular basis of tRNA selection accuracy, and how fidelity can be affected by antibiotics, remains incompletely understood. Using molecular simulations, we find that cognate and near-cognate tRNAs delivered to the ribosome by Elongation Factor Tu (EF-Tu) can follow divergent pathways of motion into the ribosome during both initial selection and proofreading. Consequently, cognate aa-tRNAs follow pathways aligned with the catalytic GTPase and peptidyltransferase centers of the large subunit, while near-cognate aa-tRNAs follow pathways that are misaligned. These findings suggest that differences in mRNA codon-tRNA anticodon interactions within the small subunit decoding center, where codon-anticodon interactions occur, are geometrically amplified over distance, as a result of this site's physical separation from the large ribosomal subunit catalytic centers. These insights posit that the physical size of both tRNA and ribosome are key determinants of the tRNA selection fidelity mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Girodat
- Theoretical Biology and Biophysics, Theoretical Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA
| | - Hans-Joachim Wieden
- Department of Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Scott C Blanchard
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA.
| | - Karissa Y Sanbonmatsu
- Theoretical Biology and Biophysics, Theoretical Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, USA.
- New Mexico Consortium, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Berg MD, Isaacson JR, Cozma E, Genereaux J, Lajoie P, Villén J, Brandl CJ. Regulating Expression of Mistranslating tRNAs by Readthrough RNA Polymerase II Transcription. ACS Synth Biol 2021; 10:3177-3189. [PMID: 34726901 PMCID: PMC8765249 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.1c00461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
variants that alter the genetic code increase
protein diversity and have many applications in synthetic biology.
Since the tRNA variants can cause a loss of proteostasis, regulating
their expression is necessary to achieve high levels of novel protein.
Mechanisms to positively regulate transcription with exogenous activator
proteins like those often used to regulate RNA polymerase II (RNAP
II)-transcribed genes are not applicable to tRNAs as their expression
by RNA polymerase III requires elements internal to the tRNA. Here,
we show that tRNA expression is repressed by overlapping transcription
from an adjacent RNAP II promoter. Regulating the expression of the
RNAP II promoter allows inverse regulation of the tRNA. Placing either
Gal4- or TetR–VP16-activated promoters downstream of a mistranslating
tRNASer variant that misincorporates serine at proline
codons in Saccharomyces cerevisiae allows
mistranslation at a level not otherwise possible because of the toxicity
of the unregulated tRNA. Using this inducible tRNA system, we explore
the proteotoxic effects of mistranslation on yeast cells. High levels
of mistranslation cause cells to arrest in the G1 phase. These cells
are impermeable to propidium iodide, yet growth is not restored upon
repressing tRNA expression. High levels of mistranslation increase
cell size and alter cell morphology. This regulatable tRNA expression
system can be applied to study how native tRNAs and tRNA variants
affect the proteome and other biological processes. Variations of
this inducible tRNA system should be applicable to other eukaryotic
cell types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Berg
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Joshua R. Isaacson
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Ecaterina Cozma
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Julie Genereaux
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Patrick Lajoie
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Judit Villén
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Christopher J. Brandl
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5C1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kazantsev A, Ignatova Z. Constraints on error rate revealed by computational study of G•U tautomerization in translation. Nucleic Acids Res 2021; 49:11823-11833. [PMID: 34669948 PMCID: PMC8599798 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkab947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In translation, G•U mismatch in codon-anticodon decoding is an error hotspot likely due to transition of G•U from wobble (wb) to Watson-Crick (WC) geometry, which is governed by keto/enol tautomerization (wb-WC reaction). Yet, effects of the ribosome on the wb-WC reaction and its implications for decoding mechanism remain unclear. Employing quantum-mechanical/molecular-mechanical umbrella sampling simulations using models of the ribosomal decoding site (A site) we determined that the wb-WC reaction is endoergic in the open, but weakly exoergic in the closed A-site state. We extended the classical ‘induced-fit’ model of initial selection by incorporating wb-WC reaction parameters in open and closed states. For predicted parameters, the non-equilibrium exoergic wb-WC reaction is kinetically limited by the decoding rates. The model explains early observations of the WC geometry of G•U from equilibrium structural studies and reveals discrimination capacity for the working ribosome operating at non-equilibrium conditions. The equilibration of the exoergic wb-WC reaction counteracts the equilibration of the open-closed transition of the A site, constraining the decoding accuracy and potentially explaining the persistence of the G•U as an error hotspot. Our results unify structural and mechanistic views of codon-anticodon decoding and generalize the ‘induced-fit’ model for flexible substrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andriy Kazantsev
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Zoya Ignatova
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Berg MD, Zhu Y, Ruiz BY, Loll-Krippleber R, Isaacson J, San Luis BJ, Genereaux J, Boone C, Villén J, Brown GW, Brandl CJ. The amino acid substitution affects cellular response to mistranslation. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2021; 11:6310018. [PMID: 34568909 PMCID: PMC8473984 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkab218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Mistranslation, the misincorporation of an amino acid not specified by the "standard" genetic code, occurs in all organisms. tRNA variants that increase mistranslation arise spontaneously and engineered tRNAs can achieve mistranslation frequencies approaching 10% in yeast and bacteria. Interestingly, human genomes contain tRNA variants with the potential to mistranslate. Cells cope with increased mistranslation through multiple mechanisms, though high levels cause proteotoxic stress. The goal of this study was to compare the genetic interactions and the impact on transcriptome and cellular growth of two tRNA variants that mistranslate at a similar frequency but create different amino acid substitutions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. One tRNA variant inserts alanine at proline codons whereas the other inserts serine for arginine. Both tRNAs decreased growth rate, with the effect being greater for arginine to serine than for proline to alanine. The tRNA that substituted serine for arginine resulted in a heat shock response. In contrast, heat shock response was minimal for proline to alanine substitution. Further demonstrating the significance of the amino acid substitution, transcriptome analysis identified unique up- and down-regulated genes in response to each mistranslating tRNA. Number and extent of negative synthetic genetic interactions also differed depending upon type of mistranslation. Based on the unique responses observed for these mistranslating tRNAs, we predict that the potential of mistranslation to exacerbate diseases caused by proteotoxic stress depends on the tRNA variant. Furthermore, based on their unique transcriptomes and genetic interactions, different naturally occurring mistranslating tRNAs have the potential to negatively influence specific diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Berg
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada.,Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Yanrui Zhu
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Bianca Y Ruiz
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Raphaël Loll-Krippleber
- Department of Biochemistry, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S, Canada
| | - Joshua Isaacson
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Bryan-Joseph San Luis
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S, Canada
| | - Julie Genereaux
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Charles Boone
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S, Canada
| | - Judit Villén
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Grant W Brown
- Department of Biochemistry, Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S, Canada
| | - Christopher J Brandl
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Berg MD, Brandl CJ. Transfer RNAs: diversity in form and function. RNA Biol 2021; 18:316-339. [PMID: 32900285 PMCID: PMC7954030 DOI: 10.1080/15476286.2020.1809197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
As the adaptor that decodes mRNA sequence into protein, the basic aspects of tRNA structure and function are central to all studies of biology. Yet the complexities of their properties and cellular roles go beyond the view of tRNAs as static participants in protein synthesis. Detailed analyses through more than 60 years of study have revealed tRNAs to be a fascinatingly diverse group of molecules in form and function, impacting cell biology, physiology, disease and synthetic biology. This review analyzes tRNA structure, biosynthesis and function, and includes topics that demonstrate their diversity and growing importance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Berg
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Abstract
To perform an accurate protein synthesis, ribosomes accomplish complex tasks involving the long-range communication between its functional centres such as the peptidyl transfer centre, the tRNA bindings sites and the peptide exit tunnel. How information is transmitted between these sites remains one of the major challenges in current ribosome research. Many experimental studies have revealed that some r-proteins play essential roles in remote communication and the possible involvement of r-protein networks in these processes have been recently proposed. Our phylogenetic, structural and mathematical study reveals that of the three kingdom's r-protein networks converged towards non-random graphs where r-proteins collectively coevolved to optimize interconnection between functional centres. The massive acquisition of conserved aromatic residues at the interfaces and along the extensions of the newly connected eukaryotic r-proteins also highlights that a strong selective pressure acts on their sequences probably for the formation of new allosteric pathways in the network.
Collapse
|
10
|
Chemical-Genetic Interactions with the Proline Analog L-Azetidine-2-Carboxylic Acid in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2020; 10:4335-4345. [PMID: 33082270 PMCID: PMC7718759 DOI: 10.1534/g3.120.401876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Non-proteinogenic amino acids, such as the proline analog L-azetidine-2-carboxylic acid (AZC), are detrimental to cells because they are mis-incorporated into proteins and lead to proteotoxic stress. Our goal was to identify genes that show chemical-genetic interactions with AZC in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and thus also potentially define the pathways cells use to cope with amino acid mis-incorporation. Screening the yeast deletion and temperature sensitive collections, we found 72 alleles with negative chemical-genetic interactions with AZC treatment and 12 alleles that suppress AZC toxicity. Many of the genes with negative chemical-genetic interactions are involved in protein quality control pathways through the proteasome. Genes involved in actin cytoskeleton organization and endocytosis also had negative chemical-genetic interactions with AZC. Related to this, the number of actin patches per cell increases upon AZC treatment. Many of the same cellular processes were identified to have interactions with proteotoxic stress caused by two other amino acid analogs, canavanine and thialysine, or a mistranslating tRNA variant that mis-incorporates serine at proline codons. Alleles that suppressed AZC-induced toxicity functioned through the amino acid sensing TOR pathway or controlled amino acid permeases required for AZC uptake. Further suggesting the potential of genetic changes to influence the cellular response to proteotoxic stress, overexpressing many of the genes that had a negative chemical-genetic interaction with AZC suppressed AZC toxicity.
Collapse
|
11
|
Rodnina MV, Korniy N, Klimova M, Karki P, Peng BZ, Senyushkina T, Belardinelli R, Maracci C, Wohlgemuth I, Samatova E, Peske F. Translational recoding: canonical translation mechanisms reinterpreted. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:1056-1067. [PMID: 31511883 PMCID: PMC7026636 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkz783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
During canonical translation, the ribosome moves along an mRNA from the start to the stop codon in exact steps of one codon at a time. The collinearity of the mRNA and the protein sequence is essential for the quality of the cellular proteome. Spontaneous errors in decoding or translocation are rare and result in a deficient protein. However, dedicated recoding signals in the mRNA can reprogram the ribosome to read the message in alternative ways. This review summarizes the recent advances in understanding the mechanisms of three types of recoding events: stop-codon readthrough, –1 ribosome frameshifting and translational bypassing. Recoding events provide insights into alternative modes of ribosome dynamics that are potentially applicable to other non-canonical modes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina V Rodnina
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Natalia Korniy
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Mariia Klimova
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Prajwal Karki
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Bee-Zen Peng
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Tamara Senyushkina
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Riccardo Belardinelli
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Cristina Maracci
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Ingo Wohlgemuth
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Ekaterina Samatova
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Frank Peske
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| |
Collapse
|