Temperature Dependent Crystal Structure Analyses and Ion Volume Determinations of Organic Salts

Cyano(fluoro)borate and cyano(hydrido)borate ionic liquids: low-viscosity ionic media for electrochemical applications

The synthesis and detailed characterization of low-viscosity room-temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) and [BnPh₃P]⁺ salts with the cyano(fluoro)borate anions [BF(CN)₃]^- (MFB), [BF₂(CN)₂]^- (DFB), and [BF₃(CN)]^- as well as the new mixed-substituted anion [BFH(CN)₂]^- (FHB) is described. The RTILs with [EMIm]⁺ or [BMPL]⁺ as countercations were obtained in yields of up to 98% from readily available alkali metal salts and in high purities that allow application in electrochemical devices. Trends in thermal stability, melting and freezing behavior, density, electrochemical stability, dynamic viscosity, specific conductivity and ion diffusivity have been assessed and compared to those of the related tetracyanoborate- and cyano(hydrido)borate-RTILs. The crystal structure analysis of the [BnPh₃P]⁺ salts of [BF_n(CN)_4-n]^- (n = 0-4), [BH_n(CN)_4-n]^- (n = 1-3) and [BFH(CN)₂]^- provided experimental access to anion volumina that together with ion molecular mass, electrostatic potential, shape and chemical stability have been correlated to physicochemical properties. In addition, the cytotoxicity of the [EMIm]⁺-ILs and potassium or sodium salts was studied.

Does Explicit Polarizability Improve Simulations of Phase Behavior of Ionic Liquids?

Molecular dynamics simulations are performed for a test set of 20 aprotic ionic liquids to investigate whether including an explicit polarizability model in the force field leads to higher accuracy and reliability of the calculated phase behavior properties, especially the enthalpy of fusion. A classical nonpolarizable all-atom optimized potentials for liquid simulations (OPLS) force-field model developed by Canongia Lopes and Pádua (CL&P) serves as a reference level of theory. Polarizability is included either in the form of Drude oscillators, resulting in the CL&P-D models, or in the framework of the atomic multipole optimized energetics for biomolecular application (AMOEBA) force field with polarizable atomic sites. Benchmarking of the calculated fusion enthalpy values against the experimental data reveals that overall the nonpolarizable CL&P model and polarizable CL&P-D models perform similarly with average deviations of about 30%. However, fusion enthalpies from the CL&P-D models exhibit a stronger correlation with their experimental counterparts. The least successful predictions are interestingly obtained from AMOEBA (deviation ca. 60%), which may indicate that a reparametrization of this force-field model is needed to achieve improved predictions of the fusion enthalpy. In general, all FF models tend to underestimate the fusion enthalpies. In addition, quantum chemical calculations are used to compute the electronic cohesive energies of the crystalline phases of the ionic liquids and of the interaction energies within the ion pair. Significant positive correlations are found between the fusion enthalpy and the cohesive energies. The character of the present anions predetermines the magnitude of individual mechanistic components of the interaction energy and related enthalpic and cohesive properties.

Computational assessment of the crystallization tendency of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ionic liquids

A test set of 20 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ionic liquids, differing in their anions, is subjected to a computational study with an aim to interpret the experimental difficulties related to the preparation of crystalline phases of the selected species. Molecular dynamics simulations of the liquid phases, quantum-chemical symmetry-adapted perturbation theory calculations of the interaction energies within the ion pair, and density functional theory calculations of the cohesive energies of the crystal phases are used in this work to obtain the structural, energetic, and diffusion parameters of the materials. Correlations of fusion temperatures and enthalpies and temperatures of the glass transitions with 15 calculated parameters are investigated in order to interpret the trends of the phase behavior of the selected ionic liquids. Correlations of a fair significance are found between the glass transition temperatures and selected energetic, cohesive, and diffusion-related characteristics of the liquids; however, the correlations of calculated transport and some enthalpic properties are blurred by the limited accuracy of the non-polarizable CL&P force field for predicting these properties. 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate is found to have an exclusive position among those in the test set due to several outlying characteristics, such as the short contact distance of its counterions in the liquid, high pair interaction energies, and importance of the dispersion interactions for the collective cohesion, impeding its crystallization significantly.

Formation of a solid solution between [N(C2H5)4][BF4] and [N(C2H5)4][PF6] in crystal and plastic crystal phases

The [N(C₂H₅)₄][BF₄]–[N(C₂H₅)₄][PF₆] binary system form solid solution in both crystal and plastic crystal phases (rock-salt type for plastic crystals).

Calorimetric Studies and Structural Aspects of Ionic Liquids in Designing Sorption Materials for Thermal Energy Storage

The thermal properties of a series of twenty-four ionic liquids (ILs) have been determined by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) with the aim of simulating processes involving water sorption. For eleven water-free ILs, the molecular structures have been determined by X-ray crystallography in the solid state, which have been used to derive the molecular volumes of the ionic components of the ILs. Moreover, the structures reveal a high prevalence of hydrogen bonding in these compounds. A relationship between the molecular volumes and the experimentally determined energies of dilution could be established. The highest energies of dilution observed in this series were obtained for the acetate-based ILs, which underlines their potential as working fluids in sorption-based thermal energy storage systems.

Estimation of Lattice Enthalpies of Ionic Liquids Supported by Hirshfeld Analysis

New measurements of vaporization enthalpies for 15 1:1 ionic liquids are performed by using a quartz-crystal microbalance. Collection and analysis of 33 available crystal structures of organic salts, which comprise 13 different cations and 12 anions, is performed. Their dissociation lattice enthalpies are calculated by a combination of experimental and quantum chemical quantities and are divided into the relaxation and Coulomb components to give an insight into elusive short-range interaction enthalpies. An empirical equation is developed, based on interaction-specific Hirshfeld surfaces and solvation enthalpies, which enables the estimation of the lattice enthalpy by using only the crystal-structure data.

The structural classification of the highly disordered crystal phases of [Nn][BF4], [Nn][PF6], [Pn][BF4], and [Pn][PF6] salts (Nn(+) = tetraalkylammonium and Pn(+) = tetraalkylphosphonium)

The structures of 16 symmetric tetraalkylammonium (Nn(+)) and tetraalkylphosphonium (Pn(+)) salts ([Nn][BF4], [Nn][PF6], [Pn][BF4], and [Pn][PF6], where n = 1 to 4, and denotes the number of carbon atoms in each alkyl chain) have been investigated by X-ray diffraction in order to elucidate the effect of ion size on the disordered structure of organic salts. All the salts exhibit one or more solid-solid phase transitions in differential scanning calorimetric curves. Powder X-ray diffraction revealed that the highest temperature solid phase of these salts belongs to a crystal system with a high cubic or hexagonal symmetry. The structures are classified into 5 different types: CsCl', NaCl, NaCl', inverse NiAs, and TBPPF6. The CsCl'-type whose octant corresponds to the original CsCl unit cell is observed for [N1][PF6] owing to the orientational difference for the cation or the anion. The NaCl-type structure is observed for the N2(+) and P2(+) salts while the NaCl'-type structure is observed for [N3][PF6], where the configuration of ions is based on the NaCl-type but the four equivalent positions in the original NaCl lattice split into two sets of equivalent positions (three and one). The inverse NiAs structure is observed for [P3][PF6]. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction reveals that the disordering of ions in [P4][PF6] becomes more significant with increasing temperature. The new structure of a cubic phase, the TBPPF6-type structure, is found for the salts with long alkyl chains. The structure is roughly determined at 333 K and the ions therein are highly disordered but not rotating. The validity of the radius ratio rule is confirmed through appropriate assessment of the ion size.