Handling and Training of Wild Animals: Evidence and Ethics-Based Approaches and Best Practices in the Modern Zoo

There is an ethical responsibility to provide all animals living in human care with optimal and positive well-being. As animals living in zoos and aquariums frequently interact with their human caregivers as part of their daily care routines, it is both relevant and essential to consider the impact of these interactions on animal well-being. Allowing animals to have choice and control in multiple areas of their lives, such as by providing opportunities for them to voluntarily participate in their own care through, for example, positive reinforcement training, is an essential component of good animal well-being programs. This review aims to describe evidence-based approaches, ethics, and best practices in the handling and training of the many taxa held in zoos and aquariums worldwide, drawing from work in related animal care fields such as laboratories, farms, rescue, and sanctuaries. The importance of ongoing animal well-being assessments is discussed, with a particular focus on the need for continued review and refinement of processes and procedures pertaining to animal training and handling specifically. Review, enquiry, assessment, evaluation, and refinement will aim to dynamically support positive well-being for all animals.

Monitoring ovarian function and detecting pregnancy in felids: A review

Reliable detection and monitoring of estrus and pregnancy is essential to the effective ex situ conservation of endangered felids. Here, we review the current methods used to detect estrus and pregnancy in felids and describe the advantages and limitations of each. A total of 194 felid-focused publications were reviewed. The methods used included behavioral assessments (61 publications across 24 species), hormone monitoring (124 studies across 28 species), fecal protein monitoring (two studies in cheetah), ultrasonography (31 publications across seven species), vaginal cytology (22 publications across nine species), and laparoscopy (70 publications across 19 species). Behavior-based assessments of reproductive state are often inconsistent and unreliable in felids; thus hormone measurement is the most frequently used method for monitoring estrous cycles (66% of studies). In non-domestic felids, non-invasive fecal- or urine-based hormone metabolite analyses are preferred to blood assessments (66% of endocrine-based publications). While the measurement of fecal estrogen and progestin metabolites are useful for the retrospective assessment of ovarian activity, their use for real-time detection of estrus is limited. Vaginal cytology, laparoscopy and ultrasonography provide an acute and immediate determination of reproductive state but usually require anesthesia or sedation, which can prevent ovulation and cause abortions; thus, their use for pregnancy diagnosis is limited. Fecal progesterone or prostaglandin F_2α metabolites can be used to detect pregnancy in most felids (the exception being fecal progestins for Lynx spp.), but only during mid-to-late gestation. Urinary relaxin measurement is a promising method for earlier pregnancy diagnosis (30-40% duration of gestation) but is presently limited by poor assay sensitivity due to the lack of a feline-specific relaxin antibody. Elevated levels of fecal immunoglobulin J chain have been investigated as a tool to detect pregnancy in cheetah (>80% accuracy), but research is lacking on other species. We conclude that there is no single 'best method' for monitoring ovarian activity and detecting pregnancy in felids, and current best practice would involve a combination of existing methods. Non-invasive methods for detecting estrus and pregnancy in felids (e.g., accelerometry and infrared thermography) should also be considered to augment existing methods.

Assisted reproductive technologies for endangered species conservation: developing sophisticated protocols with limited access to animals with unique reproductive mechanisms

Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) have been proposed as a means of overcoming the significant challenges of managing small, isolated populations of endangered species in zoos. However, efficient protocols for ARTs do not exist for most endangered species. This review will focus on research efforts to characterize unique reproductive mechanisms and develop species-specific ARTs. Central to these studies are assays to measure steroid metabolites in urine or feces and/or training programs to allow unrestrained blood collections and ultrasound evaluations. The resulting information about estrous cycle dynamics, combined with studies of semen collection and processing, provides the foundation for the development of artificial insemination (AI). In vitro fertilization and embryo transfer are also discussed in relation to the advantages these techniques could provide relative to AI, as well as the significant challenges involved with technologies that require oocytes and embryos. Finally, an argument is made for additional research of nontraditional model species (e.g., domestic cats and dogs) and the development of novel models representing unique taxa. Whether these species are studied by zoo-based researchers with the expressed intent of developing ARTs for conservation or academic scientists interested in basic biology, the resulting information will provide a unique, evolutionary perspective on reproduction that could have wide-reaching benefits. The more information we have available, the better our chances will be of developing effective ARTs and making a difference in conservation efforts for endangered species.

Positive Reinforcement Conditioning as a Tool for Frequent Minimally Invasive Blood and Vaginal Swab Sampling in African Lions (Panthera Leo)

Information regarding the physiology of African lions is scarce, mainly due to challenges associated with essential routine research procedures. The aim of this experiment was to test the possibility of training six captive lionesses by positive reinforcement conditioning (PRC) to voluntarily allow the collection of vaginal swabs and blood samples. This was done with the final goal of avoiding frequent anesthesia, and potentially stressful management during reproduction research. All lionesses mastered basic clicker and targeting principles within 2 weeks. Routine sampling was possible after 20 weeks of training, enabling the collection of about 750 vaginal swabs and 650 blood samples over 18 months. The animals remained calm and cooperative during all sessions, and demonstrated curiosity in the training. PRC training of captive lionesses proved to be a suitable, minimally invasive method for repeated collection of vaginal swabs and blood. Additionally, PRC may serve as behavioral enrichment for African lions in captive settings. Compared to chemical or physical restraining methods, this noninvasive management approach may reduce distress and physiological negative side effects, thus opening up new avenues for feline research.

Integrating trans-abdominal ultrasonography with fecal steroid metabolite monitoring to accurately diagnose pregnancy and predict the timing of parturition in the red panda (Ailurus fulgens styani)

Red pandas (Ailurus fulgens styani) exhibit a variable gestation length and may experience a pseudopregnancy indistinguishable from true pregnancy; therefore, it is not possible to deduce an individual's true pregnancy status and parturition date based on breeding dates or fecal progesterone excretion patterns alone. The goal of this study was to evaluate the use of transabdominal ultrasonography for pregnancy diagnosis in red pandas. Two to three females were monitored over 4 consecutive years, generating a total of seven profiles (four pregnancies, two pseudopregnancies, and one lost pregnancy). Fecal samples were collected and assayed for progesterone (P4) and estrogen conjugate (EC) to characterize patterns associated with breeding activity and parturition events. Animals were trained for voluntary transabdominal ultrasound and examinations were performed weekly. Breeding behaviors and fecal EC data suggest that the estrus cycle of this species is 11-12 days in length. Fecal steroid metabolite analyses also revealed that neither P4 nor EC concentrations were suitable indicators of pregnancy in this species; however, a secondary increase in P4 occurred 69-71 days prior to parturition in all pregnant females, presumably coinciding with embryo implantation. Using ultrasonography, embryos were detected as early as 62 days post-breeding/50 days pre-partum and serial measurements of uterine lumen diameter were documented throughout four pregnancies. Advances in reproductive diagnostics, such as the implementation of ultrasonography, may facilitate improved husbandry of pregnant females and allow for the accurate prediction of parturition.

CONDITIONING METHODS FOR ANIMALS IN AGRICULTURE: A REVIEW

Abstract This article briefly describes different conditioning techniques used to help understand learning in farm livestock and economically important animals. A basic overview of conditioning is included along with the importance of different conditioning methods, associative and non-associative learning, and how these principles apply to chickens, horses, cows, goats, pigs, and sheep. Additional information on learning theory specific for each animal is also provided.

Testing the effect of medical positive reinforcement training on salivary cortisol levels in bonobos and orangutans

The management of captive animals has been improved by the establishment of positive reinforcement training as a tool to facilitate interactions between caretakers and animals. In great apes, positive reinforcement training has also been used to train individuals to participate in simple medical procedures to monitor physical health. One aim of positive reinforcement training is to establish a relaxed atmosphere for situations that, without training, might be very stressful. This is especially true for simple medical procedures that can require animals to engage in behaviours that are unusual or use unfamiliar medical devices that can be upsetting. Therefore, one cannot exclude the possibility that the training itself is a source of stress. In this study, we explored the effects of medical positive reinforcement training on salivary cortisol in two groups of captive ape species, orangutans and bonobos, which were familiar to this procedure. Furthermore, we successfully biologically validated the salivary cortisol assay, which had already been validated for bonobos, for orangutans. For the biological validation, we found that cortisol levels in orangutan saliva collected during baseline conditions were lower than in samples collected during three periods that were potentially stressful for the animals. However, we did not find significant changes in salivary cortisol during medical positive reinforcement training for either bonobos or orangutans. Therefore, for bonobos and orangutans with previous exposure to medical PRT, the procedure is not stressful. Thus, medical PRT provides a helpful tool for the captive management of the two species.

Positive reinforcement training facilitates the voluntary participation of laboratory macaws with veterinary procedures

Psittacine birds are challenging laboratory subjects, as they are typically long-lived, very social, highly intelligent, and easily stressed. The benefits of positive reinforcement techniques in animal management have been well documented for mammalian species; however, there are few publications on such programs for birds. To demonstrate the practicality of positive reinforcement training of laboratory birds to cooperate with research procedures involving direct manipulation of individuals, 9 adult macaws (Ara species; 5 individuals and 2 pairs) were trained in 10-minute sessions, twice a day for 8 weeks. The trained behaviors were: target, stay, accept liquids from a syringe, step onto a perch, step onto a scale, allow pressing a syringe to the pectoral area (surrogate for an intramuscular injection), and step onto a towel. All individually housed birds reliably targeted, stayed, and accepted a syringe, and 4 of the 5 stepped onto a perch. One bird performed all of the behaviors. Paired birds learned advanced techniques significantly faster when trained by 2 trainers versus 1 trainer. All behaviors that were mastered during the initial phase of training were successfully transferred so that the birds would reliably perform for the husbandry staff. We conclude that positive reinforcement techniques provide an effective, practical way to train laboratory macaws in behaviors useful for veterinary practice and research. Positive reinforcement used to evoke voluntary participation in procedures will help reduce stress associated with capture and restraint and improve welfare for laboratory parrots.

Development and validation of a behavioral acclimation protocol for cats to respiration chambers used for indirect calorimetry studies

Cats exposed to novel environments initiate stress responses by behavioral and physiological changes that modify metabolism and lead to the collection of unreliable data. Fourteen cats (10 ± 2 months) were subjected to an 11-week acclimation procedure to adapt to restriction within chambers used for indirect calorimetry studies. Cats were acclimated to chambers in their home environments, to chambers in the study room, and to increasing periods of restriction within chambers. Ten additional cats (11 ± 1 month), used as controls, were subjected to a single 5-hr restriction without any prior exposure. Stress level, feed intake, fearfulness, and eliminations were recorded. Latencies to approach a novel object peaked on Weeks 4 and 8 (p < .05). Cat-Stress-Scores (CSS) declined with exposure and on Week 11, stress levels were low and consistent (p < .05). CSS was greater in unacclimated versus acclimated cats (p < .05). In conclusion, acclimation protocols prepare cats for repeated, temporary restriction within chambers, whereas short acclimations do not. A step-up acclimation procedure with behavioral indices of stress should be utilized to prepare cats for research that necessitates restriction.