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Thorel M, Obregon D, Mulot B, Maitre A, Mateos-Hernandez L, Moalic PY, Wu-Chuang A, Cabezas-Cruz A, Leclerc A. Conserved core microbiota in managed and free-ranging Loxodonta africana elephants. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1247719. [PMID: 37860133 PMCID: PMC10582353 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1247719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in animal health and homeostasis, particularly in endangered species conservation. This study investigated the fecal microbiota composition of European captive-bred African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) housed in French zoos, and compared it with wild African savanna elephants. Fecal samples were collected and processed for DNA extraction and amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The analysis of α and β diversity revealed significant effects of factors such as diet, daily activity, and institution on microbiota composition. Specifically, provision of branches as part of the diet positively impacted microbiota diversity. Comparative analyses demonstrated distinct differences between captive and wild elephant microbiomes, characterized by lower bacterial diversity and altered co-occurrence patterns in the captive population. Notably, specific taxa were differentially abundant in captive and wild elephants, suggesting the influence of the environment on microbiota composition. Furthermore, the study identified a core association network shared by both captive and wild elephants, emphasizing the importance of certain taxa in maintaining microbial interactions. These findings underscore the impact of environment and husbandry factors on elephant gut microbiota, highlighting the benefits of dietary enrichment strategies in zoos to promote microbiome diversity and health. The study contributes to the broader understanding of host-microbiota interactions and provides insights applicable to conservation medicine and captive animal management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Thorel
- ZooParc de Beauval and Beauval Nature, Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Dasiel Obregon
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Baptiste Mulot
- ZooParc de Beauval and Beauval Nature, Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Apolline Maitre
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Lourdes Mateos-Hernandez
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | | | - Alejandra Wu-Chuang
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Alejandro Cabezas-Cruz
- Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, UMR BIPAR, Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Maisons-Alfort, France
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Dunham NT, Tennant KS, Loudon AH, Dennis PM. Effects of honey locust seed pods on the behavior and nutrient intake of zoo-housed François langurs and prehensile-tailed porcupines. Zoo Biol 2023; 42:537-546. [PMID: 36880591 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
Seed pods represent an under-utilized and valuable dietary resource for zoos because they encourage naturalistic extractive foraging behavior and because seeds pods, like leafy browses, are more fiber-rich than most dietary items typically offered in zoos. The primary goal of this study was to examine the effects of honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) seed pods on the behavior and macronutrient intake of zoo-housed François' langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi; n = 3) and prehensile-tailed porcupines (Coendou prehensilis; n = 2) using a pre- versus postdiet implementation design. From December 2019 to April 2020, we recorded behavior using instantaneous interval sampling and daily macronutrient intake via dietary intake records. We found that time spent feeding increased (p < .001) and stereotypic behaviors decreased (p < .001) for the François' langur group during the seed pod phase. The prehensile-tailed porcupines also exhibited increased time spent feeding and decreased inactivity (p < .001 for all comparisons) during the experimental seed pod phase. We found no differences in macronutrient intake for the François' langur group. The female prehensile-tailed porcupine consumed more neutral detergent fiber (NDF) in the seed pod phase (p = .003) and the male consumed more crude protein, NDF, nonstructural carbohydrates, and crude fat (p < .001 for all comparisons). We stress that honey locust seed pods are a fiber-rich (i.e., ~40%-55% NDF by dry weight) dietary option for zoo-housed folivores and promote positive welfare by encouraging naturalistic foraging behavior and may help increase foraging time and decrease stereotypic behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah T Dunham
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Kaylin S Tennant
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Andrew H Loudon
- Department of Biology, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Patricia M Dennis
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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3
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Burnham CM, McKenney EA, van Heugten KA, Minter LJ, Trivedi S. Effects of age, seasonality, and reproductive status on the gut microbiome of Southern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) at the North Carolina zoo. Anim Microbiome 2023; 5:27. [PMID: 37147724 PMCID: PMC10163733 DOI: 10.1186/s42523-023-00249-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Managed southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) serve as assurance populations for wild conspecifics threatened by poaching and other anthropocentric effects, though many managed populations experience subfertility and reproductive failure. Gut microbiome and host health are inextricably linked, and reproductive outcomes in managed southern white rhinoceros may be mediated in part by their diet and gut microbial diversity. Thus, understanding microbial dynamics within managed populations may help improve conservation efforts. We characterized the taxonomic composition of the gut microbiome in the managed population of female southern white rhinoceros (n = 8) at the North Carolina Zoo and investigated the effects of seasonality (summer vs. winter) and age classes (juveniles (n = 2; 0-2 years), subadults (n = 2; 3-7 years), and adults (n = 4; >7 years)) on microbial richness and community structure. Collection of a fecal sample was attempted for each individual once per month from July-September 2020 and January-March 2021 resulting in a total of 41 samples analyzed. Microbial DNA was extracted and sequenced using the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA bacterial gene. Total operational taxonomic units (OTUs), alpha diversity (species richness, Shannon diversity), and beta diversity (Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, linear discriminant analysis effect size) indices were examined, and differentially enriched taxa were identified. RESULTS There were differences (p < 0.05) in alpha and beta diversity indices across individuals, age groups, and sampling months. Subadult females had higher levels of Shannon diversity (Wilcoxon, p < 0.05) compared to adult females and harbored a community cluster distinct from both juveniles and adults. Samples collected during winter months (January-March 2021) possessed higher species richness and statistically distinct communities compared to summer months (July-September 2020) (PERMANOVA, p < 0.05). Reproductively active (n = 2) and currently nonreproductive adult females (n = 2) harbored differentially enriched taxa, with the gut microbiome of nonreproductive females significantly enriched (p = 0.001) in unclassified members of Mobiluncus, a genus which possesses species associated with poor reproductive outcomes in other animal species when identified in the cervicovaginal microbiome. CONCLUSION Together, our results increase the understanding of age and season related microbial variation in southern white rhinoceros at the North Carolina Zoo and have identified a potential microbial biomarker for reproductive concern within managed female southern white rhinoceros.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Burnham
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, 120 W Broughton Dr, Raleigh, NC, 27607, USA
| | - Erin A McKenney
- Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, 100 Brooks Ave, Raleigh, NC, 27607, USA
| | - Kimberly Ange- van Heugten
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, 120 W Broughton Dr, Raleigh, NC, 27607, USA
| | - Larry J Minter
- North Carolina Zoo, 4401 Zoo Parkway, Asheboro, NC, 27205, USA
| | - Shweta Trivedi
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, 120 W Broughton Dr, Raleigh, NC, 27607, USA.
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Burnham CM, McKenney EA, Heugten KA, Minter LJ, Trivedi S. Effect of fecal preservation method on captive southern white rhinoceros gut microbiome. WILDLIFE SOC B 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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5
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Comparison of Whole Blood Fatty Acid Profiles between Lionfish (Pterois spp.) in Wild and Managed Care Environments. JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGICAL AND BOTANICAL GARDENS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jzbg3030028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Suboptimal nutrition may contribute to lionfish (Pterois volitans and Pterois miles) health issues in managed care environments. This study’s objective was to establish and compare whole blood fatty acid profiles in wild and aquarium lionfish. Whole blood samples were dried onto specialized high-quality paper cards from wild, invasive lionfish harvested off the North Carolina coast (n = 16) and lionfish managed by the North Carolina Aquariums (n = 12). Blood fatty acid profiles were analyzed from dried blood spots. Aquarium lionfish had significantly (p < 0.05) higher linoleic (18:2ω6) and eicosapentaenoic (20:5ω3) acid levels than wild lionfish. Similarly, aquarium lionfish had significantly (p < 0.05) lower saturated fatty acids and arachidonic (20:4ω6) to eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5ω3) ratios than wild lionfish. Total omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, as well as the ratio of these two fatty acid groups, were similar between wild and aquarium lionfish. Gut content analysis of wild lionfish diets included reef-dependent and schooling fish while aquarium lionfish diets were pelagic fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and commercial gel diets with nutrient supplements. This study reports whole blood fatty acid profiles in lionfish, providing comparative macronutrient data that may be useful for improving their nutrition and welfare in aquariums.
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Dunham NT, Koester DC, Dierenfeld ES, Rimbach R, Pontzer H. Balancing the scales: Preliminary investigation of total energy expenditure and daily metabolizable energy intake in Matschie’s tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei). PLoS One 2022; 17:e0270570. [PMID: 35759501 PMCID: PMC9236236 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0270570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Matschie’s tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei) is an endangered arboreal marsupial native to Papua New Guinea. Detailed field studies of its behavior and ecology are scarce due largely to its occupation of remote cloud forests and cryptic nature. Although this species has been in human care since the 1950s, much of its biology is still unknown. The current ex situ population is not sustainable due to health and reproductive problems, believed to stem largely from issues with diet and obesity. To better assess potential discrepancies between energy requirements and energy intake, we sought to 1) quantify total energy expenditure (TEE) of two zoo-housed Matschie’s tree kangaroos (body mass = 9.0–9.7 kg) on a diet composed largely of leafy browse; 2) quantify food and macronutrient intake, apparent dry matter macronutrient digestibility, and metabolizable energy (ME) intake over a 14-month period; and 3) test for seasonal changes in ME intake due to seasonal differences in the varieties of leafy browse offered. Using the doubly labeled water method, we determined TEE for the female (288 kcal day -1) and male (411 kcal day -1). Resulting mean TEE was well below the expected value for marsupials and macropods (i.e., ~60% of the expected value based on body mass). The mean calculated ME intakes for the female and male were 307 kcal day-1 and 454 kcal day-1, respectively. There were significant seasonal differences in ME intakes, driven by reduced intake in the autumn. These results demonstrate that Matschie’s tree kangaroos can be maintained at healthy body weights and conditions on fiber-rich and browse-heavy diets. Our findings contribute important insights into tree kangaroo energetics and physiology and can be applied to help reformulate the diet of Matschie’s tree kangaroos at captive facilities to improve population health and sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah T. Dunham
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Diana C. Koester
- Division of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
| | - Ellen S. Dierenfeld
- Ellen S. Dierenfeld, LLC, St. Louis, MO, United States of America
- Nottingham Trent University, Southwell, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca Rimbach
- Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Herman Pontzer
- Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States of America
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States of America
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Observable Metabolites and Metabolomic Sampling Protocols for Managed African Savanna Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Whole Blood Using H-NMR Spectroscopy. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12050400. [PMID: 35629905 PMCID: PMC9143938 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12050400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We used nuclear magnetic spectroscopy (NMR) to evaluate the metabolomics of heparinized whole blood drawn from six African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) maintained on a well characterized diet. Whole blood samples obtained under behavioral restraint, then quickly frozen in liquid nitrogen, were stored at −80 °C until analysis. Frozen samples were thawed under controlled conditions and extracted with methanol and chloroform to separate the polar and non-polar metabolites. We identified 18 polar metabolites and 14 non-polar lipids using one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) NMR spectra. Despite unexpected rouleaux formation in the thawed frozen samples, spectra were consistent among animals and did not vary dramatically with age or the sex of the animal.
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8
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Wood J, Jb Minter L, Tollefson TN, Bissell H, Bibus D, Ange-van Heugten K. Implications of Nutritional Management on Fatty Acid Profiles of Southern White Rhinoceroses ( Ceratotherium simum simum) Housed at Two Zoological Institutions. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:3063. [PMID: 34827795 PMCID: PMC8614272 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 10/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Southern white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum simum) are African megaherbivores that are considered near threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. The fatty acid circulating values of these animals have not been thoroughly investigated. Fatty acids are critical for immune, heart, skin, and reproductive health, and may have a significant impact on the management and conservation of this species. Published data on fatty acids in this species is limited to incomplete profiles with very few animals in managed environments. The objectives of this research were to provide novel fatty acid percentage profiles for managed healthy southern white rhinoceroses, as well as to provide comparisons between two zoological institutions with differences in diet and climate during two distinct pasture growth periods. Whole blood samples were collected as dried blood spots from six rhinoceroses at the North Carolina Zoo (NC Zoo) and five rhinoceroses at Busch Gardens Tampa (BGT) in the low growth period (February to April) of 2019 and during the high growth period (July to September) of 2020. Fatty acid results indicated numerous differences when comparing the institutions within the same growth period and when comparing the same institution between its two growth periods. Most noteworthy were the higher levels of α-linolenic acid (18:3w3) and total omega-3 fatty acids and the lower linoleic acid (18:2w6), total omega-6 fatty acids, and omega-6 to omega-3 ratio found in the BGT population in both growth periods. This study provides novel percentages of fatty acids in managed southern white rhinoceroses and data on how fatty acid profiles may be altered between two housing locations via dietary differences in hay type and quantity, pasture availability via season, and pellet inclusion levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Wood
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA;
| | | | - Troy Neil Tollefson
- Mazuri® Exotic Animal Nutrition, PMI Nutrition, Land O’Lakes, Inc., St. Louis, MO 63144, USA;
| | - Heidi Bissell
- Busch Gardens Tampa Bay, 10165 McKinley Dr, Tampa, FL 33612, USA;
| | - Doug Bibus
- Lipid Technologies LLC, P.O. Box 216, Austin, MN 55912, USA;
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Pontzer H, Rimbach R, Paltan J, Ivory EL, Kendall CJ. Air temperature and diet influence body composition and water turnover in zoo-living African elephants ( Loxodonta africana). ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:201155. [PMID: 33391799 PMCID: PMC7735349 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.201155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
African elephants, the largest land animal, face particular physiological challenges in captivity and the wild. Captive elephants can become over- or under-conditioned with inadequate exercise and diet management. Few studies have quantified body composition or water turnover in elephants, and none to date have examined longitudinal responses to changes in diet or air temperature. Using the stable isotope deuterium oxide (2H2O), we investigated changes in body mass, estimated fat-free mass (FFM, including fat-free gut content) and body fat in response to a multi-year intervention that reduced dietary energy density for adult African elephants housed at the North Carolina Zoo. We also examined the relationship between air temperature and water turnover. Deuterium dilution and depletion rates were assayed via blood samples and used to calculate body composition and water turnover in two male and three female African elephants at six intervals over a 3-year period. Within the first year after the dietary intervention, there was an increase in overall body mass, a reduction in body fat percentage and an increase in FFM. However, final values of both body fat percentage and FFM were similar to initial values. Water turnover (males: 359 ± 9 l d-1; females: 241 ± 28 l d-1) was consistent with the allometric scaling of water use in other terrestrial mammals. Water turnover increased with outdoor air temperature. Our study highlights the physiological water dependence of elephants and shows that individuals have to drink every 2-3 days to avoid critical water loss of approximately 10% body mass in hot conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herman Pontzer
- Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Rebecca Rimbach
- Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
- School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Jenny Paltan
- Department of Anthropology, Hunter College, New York, NY, USA
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10
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Lasky M, Campbell J, Osborne JA, Ivory EL, Lasky J, Kendall CJ. Increasing browse and social complexity can improve zoo elephant welfare. Zoo Biol 2020; 40:9-19. [PMID: 33043537 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
While recent work has assessed how environmental and managerial changes influence elephant welfare across multiple zoos, few studies have addressed the effects of management changes within a single institution. In this paper, we examine how management changes related to social structure and diet affect the behavior of a group of zoo elephants over a 23-month period while also considering underlying factors, such as time of day, hormonal cycle, and individual differences. We recorded individual behaviors using 2-min scan samples during 60-min sessions. We analyzed behavioral changes across several study variables using generalized linear mixed models. We found that increasing browse can improve opportunities for foraging throughout the day but may not be sufficient to reduce repetitive behaviors. We observed that increasing group size and integration of bulls with cows can lead to increased social interaction in African elephants. Our results highlight the importance of using multiple management alterations to address elephant welfare, and considering environmental factors, when making management decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Lasky
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jennifer Campbell
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jason A Osborne
- Department of Statistics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Erin L Ivory
- Department of Animal Management and Welfare, North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jacob Lasky
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Corinne J Kendall
- Department of Conservation, Science, and Education, North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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11
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Wood J, Koutsos E, Kendall CJ, Minter LJ, Tollefson T, Ivory E, Ange-van Heugten K. Circulating nutrients and hematological parameters in managed African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) over a 1-year period. Zoo Biol 2020; 39:345-354. [PMID: 32633838 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
African elephants (Loxodonta Africana) are currently considered a vulnerable species. One key to improving methods of species management is to better monitor and understand elephant nutrition. Analyzing circulating nutrients is one of the best and least invasive methods of monitoring managed elephant nutrition, but limited reference values are available. This study examined the circulating basic hematology concentrations, minerals, vitamins A, D, and E, and fatty acids of six African elephants (two males and four females) at the North Carolina Zoo collected monthly from March 2016 to April 2017 and compared levels among seasons. Creatinine (CRE) and albumin had seasonal differences (p ≤ .05). Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, zinc, cobalt, manganese, and molybdenum displayed seasonal differences (p ≤ .05). Retinol and 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 had seasonal differences (p ≤ .05). Linoleic acid, α-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, total omega-3 fatty acids, total omega-6 fatty acids, and the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio showed seasonal differences (p ≤ .05). Findings suggest that exogenous vitamin E supplements may not be necessary with a mixed feedstuff diet (hay, fortified concentrate pellet, browse, and produce) based on circulating values. This data offer updated information on circulating reference values and novel circulating concentrations of nutrients for Southeastern US managed African elephants that can be used to inform nutritional and health management in all similar habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Wood
- Department of Animal Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | | | | | | | - Troy Tollefson
- Mazuri® Exotic Animal Nutrition, PMI Nutrition, Land O'Lakes, Inc., St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Erin Ivory
- North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, North Carolina
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