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Yin V, Devine PWA, Saunders JC, Barendregt A, Cusdin F, Ristani A, Hines A, Shepherd S, Dembek M, Dobson CL, Snijder J, Bond NJ, Heck AJR. Stochastic assembly of biomacromolecular complexes: impact and implications on charge interpretation in native mass spectrometry. Chem Sci 2023; 14:9316-9327. [PMID: 37712025 PMCID: PMC10498669 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc03228k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Native mass spectrometry is a potent method for characterizing biomacromolecular assemblies. A critical aspect to extracting accurate mass information is the correct inference of the ion ensemble charge states. While a variety of experimental strategies and algorithms have been developed to facilitate this, virtually all approaches rely on the implicit assumption that any peaks in a native mass spectrum can be directly attributed to an underlying charge state distribution. Here, we demonstrate that this paradigm breaks down for several types of macromolecular protein complexes due to the intrinsic heterogeneity induced by the stochastic nature of their assembly. Utilizing several protein assemblies of adeno-associated virus capsids and ferritin, we demonstrate that these particles can produce a variety of unexpected spectral appearances, some of which appear superficially similar to a resolved charge state distribution. When interpreted using conventional charge inference strategies, these distorted spectra can lead to substantial errors in the calculated mass (up to ∼5%). We provide a novel analytical framework to interpret and extract mass information from these spectra by combining high-resolution native mass spectrometry, single particle Orbitrap-based charge detection mass spectrometry, and sophisticated spectral simulations based on a stochastic assembly model. We uncover that these mass spectra are extremely sensitive to not only mass heterogeneity within the subunits, but also to the magnitude and width of their charge state distributions. As we postulate that many protein complexes assemble stochastically, this framework provides a generalizable solution, further extending the usability of native mass spectrometry in the characterization of biomacromolecular assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Yin
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Center Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Paul W A Devine
- Analytical Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Janet C Saunders
- In Vivo Expressed Biologics, Discovery Sciences, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Arjan Barendregt
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Center Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Fiona Cusdin
- In Vivo Expressed Biologics, Discovery Sciences, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Alexandra Ristani
- In Vivo Expressed Biologics, Discovery Sciences, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Alistair Hines
- Analytical Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Sam Shepherd
- Analytical Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Marcin Dembek
- Purification Process Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Claire L Dobson
- In Vivo Expressed Biologics, Discovery Sciences, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Joost Snijder
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Center Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - Nicholas J Bond
- Analytical Sciences, Biopharmaceutical Development, R & D, AstraZeneca Granta Park Cambridge UK
| | - Albert J R Heck
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Center Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht The Netherlands
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Apoferritin and Dps as drug delivery vehicles: Some selected examples in oncology. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2021; 1866:130067. [PMID: 34896255 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.130067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ideal nanoparticle should be able to encapsulate either pharmaceutical agents or imaging probes so that it could treat or image clinical tumours by targeting the cancer site efficiently. Further, it would be an added advantage if it demonstrates: small size, built in targeting, biocompatibility and biodegradability. Ferritin, which is an endogenous self-assembling protein, stores iron and plays a role in iron homeostasis. When iron atoms are removed apoferritin (AFt) is formed which consists of a hollow shell where it can be used to load guest molecules. Due to its unique architecture, AFt has been investigated as a versatile carrier for tumour theranostic applications. DNA-binding protein from starved cells (Dps), which also belongs to the ferritin family, is a protein found only in prokaryotes. It is used to store iron and protect chromosomes from oxidative damage; because of its architecture, Dps could also be used as a delivery vehicle. CONCLUSIONS Both these nano particles are promising in the field of oncology, especially due to their stability, solubility and biocompatibility features. Further their exterior surface can be modified for better tumour-targeting ability. More studies, are warranted to determine the immunogenicity, biodistribution, and clearance from the body. GENERAL PERSPECTIVE This review discusses a few selected examples of the remarkable in vitro and in vivo studies that have been carried out in the recent past with the use of AFt and Dps in targeting and delivery of various pharmaceutical agents, natural products and imaging probes in the field of oncology.
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Skinner OS, McAnally MO, Van Duyne RP, Schatz GC, Breuker K, Compton PD, Kelleher NL. Native Electron Capture Dissociation Maps to Iron-Binding Channels in Horse Spleen Ferritin. Anal Chem 2017; 89:10711-10716. [PMID: 28938074 PMCID: PMC5647560 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b01581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
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Native electron capture
dissociation (NECD) is a process during
which proteins undergo fragmentation similar to that from radical
dissociation methods, but without the addition of exogenous electrons.
However, after three initial reports of NECD from the cytochrome c dimer complex, no further evidence of the effect has been
published. Here, we report NECD behavior from horse spleen ferritin,
a ∼490 kDa protein complex ∼20-fold larger than the
previously studied cytochrome c dimer. Application
of front-end infrared excitation (FIRE) in conjunction with low- and
high-m/z quadrupole isolation and
collisionally activated dissociation (CAD) provides new insights into
the NECD mechanism. Additionally, activation of the intact complex
in either the electrospray droplet or the gas phase produced c-type fragment ions. Similar to the previously reported
results on cytochrome c, these fragment ions form
near residues known to interact with iron atoms in solution. By mapping
the location of backbone cleavages associated with c-type ions onto
the crystal structure, we are able to characterize two distinct iron
binding channels that facilitate iron ion transport into the core
of the complex. The resulting pathways are in good agreement with
previously reported results for iron binding sites in mammalian ferritin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen S Skinner
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Michael O McAnally
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Richard P Van Duyne
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - George C Schatz
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Kathrin Breuker
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Innsbruck , A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Philip D Compton
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Neil L Kelleher
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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Belletti D, Pederzoli F, Forni F, Vandelli MA, Tosi G, Ruozi B. Protein cage nanostructure as drug delivery system: magnifying glass on apoferritin. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2016; 14:825-840. [PMID: 27690258 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2017.1243528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION New frontiers in nanomedicine are moving towards the research of new biomaterials. Apoferritin (APO), is a uniform regular self-assemblies nano-sized protein with excellent biocompatibility and a unique structure that affords it the ability to stabilize small active molecules in its inner core. Areas covered: APO can be loaded by applying a passive process (mainly used for ions and metals) or by a unique formulative approach based on disassemby/reassembly process. In this article, we aim to organize the experimental evidence provided by a number of studies on the loading, release and targeting. Attention is initially focused on the most investigated antineoplastic drug and contrast agents up to the most recent application in gene therapy. Expert opinion: Various preclinical studies have demonstrated that APO improved the potency and selectivity of some chemotherapeutics. However, in order to translate the use of APO into therapy, some issues must be solved, especially regarding the reproducibility of the loading protocol used, the optimization of nanocarrier characterization, detailed understanding of the final structure of loaded APO, and the real mechanism and timing of drug release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Belletti
- a Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Te.Far.T.I., Department of Life Sciences , University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena , Italy
| | - Francesca Pederzoli
- a Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Te.Far.T.I., Department of Life Sciences , University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena , Italy
| | - Flavio Forni
- a Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Te.Far.T.I., Department of Life Sciences , University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena , Italy
| | - Maria Angela Vandelli
- a Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Te.Far.T.I., Department of Life Sciences , University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena , Italy
| | - Giovanni Tosi
- a Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Te.Far.T.I., Department of Life Sciences , University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena , Italy
| | - Barbara Ruozi
- a Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Te.Far.T.I., Department of Life Sciences , University of Modena and Reggio Emilia , Modena , Italy
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Jääskeläinen A, Soukka T, Lamminmäki U, Korpimäki T, Virta M. Development of a denaturation/renaturation-based production process for ferritin nanoparticles. Biotechnol Bioeng 2009; 102:1012-24. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.22140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Lee JL, Kim HY. Expression and Iron Storage Properties of Recombinant Human Ferritins inEscherichia Coli:Relevance for Functional Ferritins in Food Systems. FOOD BIOTECHNOL 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/08905430802043131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Jääskeläinen A, Harinen RR, Soukka T, Lamminmäki U, Korpimäki T, Virta M. Biologically Produced Bifunctional Recombinant Protein Nanoparticles for Immunoassays. Anal Chem 2008; 80:583-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac071382v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anu Jääskeläinen
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland, and Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Reija-Riitta Harinen
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland, and Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tero Soukka
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland, and Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Urpo Lamminmäki
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland, and Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teemu Korpimäki
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland, and Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Marko Virta
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland, and Department of Applied Chemistry and Microbiology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
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Masuda T, Goto F, Yoshihara T, Ezure T, Suzuki T, Kobayashi S, Shikata M, Utsumi S. Construction of homo- and heteropolymers of plant ferritin subunits using an in vitro protein expression system. Protein Expr Purif 2007; 56:237-46. [PMID: 17904862 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2007.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2007] [Revised: 07/20/2007] [Accepted: 07/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Ferritin is a class of iron storage protein composed of 24 subunits. Although many studies on gene expression analyses of plant ferritin have been conducted, the functions and oligomeric assembly of plant ferritin subunits are still largely unknown. In order to characterize the ability to form multimeric protein shells and determine the iron incorporating activity, we produced ferritin homo- and heteropolymers by expressing four cDNAs of ferritin subunits from soybean, sfer1, sfer2, sfer3, and sfer4, using an in vitro protein expression system. Using SDS-PAGE analysis followed by Prussian blue stain, homopolymers of SFER1, SFER2, and SFER3, and heteropolymers of SFER1/SFER2 and SFER1/SFER3 were detected as assembled polymers with iron incorporating activity, whereas only a small amount of SFER4 related homo- and heteropolymer was detected, suggesting that the SFER4 was not competent for oligomeric assembly, unlike every other ferritin. We conclude that certain combinations of plant ferritin subunits can form heteropolymers and that their iron incorporating activities depend on the formation of multimeric protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Masuda
- Laboratory of Food Quality Design and Development, Division of Agronomy and Horticultural Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan.
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Jääskeläinen A, Harinen RR, Lamminmäki U, Korpimäki T, Pelliniemi LJ, Soukka T, Virta M. Production of apoferritin-based bioinorganic hybrid nanoparticles by bacterial fermentation followed by self-assembly. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2007; 3:1362-7. [PMID: 17600800 DOI: 10.1002/smll.200700011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anu Jääskeläinen
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
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Goralska M, Holley BL, McGahan MC. Identification of a mechanism by which lens epithelial cells limit accumulation of overexpressed ferritin H-chain. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:42920-6. [PMID: 12920121 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m305827200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary cultures of canine lens epithelial cells were transiently transfected with cDNAs for dog ferritin H- or L-chains in order to study differential expression of these chains. By using chain-specific antibodies, we determined that at 48 h after transfection overexpression of L-chain was much higher (9-fold over control) than that of H-chain (1.7-fold). We discovered that differentially transfected cells secrete overexpressed chains as homopolymeric ferritin into the media. Forty-eight hours after transfection accumulation of H-ferritin in the media was much higher (3-fold) than that of L-ferritin. This resulted in lowering of the concentration of H-chain in the cytosol. Co-transfection of cells with both H- and L-chain cDNAs increased the intracellular levels of H-chain and eliminated secretion of H-ferritin to the media. We concluded that lens epithelial cells differentially regulate concentration of both ferritin chains in the cytosol. The overexpressed L-chain accumulated in the cytosol as predominantly homopolymeric L-ferritin. This is in contrast to H-chain, which is removed to the media unless there is an L-chain available to form heteropolymeric ferritin. These data indicate that the inability of cells to more strictly control cytosolic levels of L-chain may augment its accumulation in lenses of humans with hereditary hyperferritinemia cataract syndrome, which is caused by overexpression of L-chain due to mutation in the regulatory element in the untranslated region of the mRNA of the chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Goralska
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, USA.
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Van Eden ME, Aust SD. The consequences of hydroxyl radical formation on the stoichiometry and kinetics of ferrous iron oxidation by human apoferritin. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 31:1007-17. [PMID: 11595385 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-5849(01)00677-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite previous detection of hydroxyl radical formation during iron deposition into ferritin, no reports exist in the literature concerning how it might affect ferritin function. In the present study, hydroxyl radical formation during Fe(II) oxidation by apoferritin was found to be contingent on the "ferroxidase" activity (i.e., H subunit composition) exhibited by apoferritin. Hydroxyl radical formation was found to affect both the stoichiometry and kinetics of Fe(II) oxidation by apoferritin. The stoichiometry of Fe(II) oxidation by apoferritin in an unbuffered solution of 50 mM NaCl, pH 7.0, was approximately 3.1 Fe(II)/O(2) at all iron-to-protein ratios tested. The addition of HEPES as an alternate reactant for the hydroxyl radical resulted in a stoichiometry of about 2 Fe(II)/O(2) at all iron-to-protein ratios. HEPES functioned to protect apoferritin from oxidative modification, for its omission from reaction mixtures containing Fe(II) and apoferritin resulted in alterations to the ferritin consistent with oxidative damage. The kinetic parameters for the reaction of recombinant human H apoferritin with Fe(II) in HEPES buffer (100 mM) were: K(m) = 60 microM, k(cat) = 10 s(-1), and k(cat)/K(m) = 1.7 x 10(5) M(-1) x (-1). Collectively, these results contradict the "crystal growth model" for iron deposition into ferritin and, while our data would seem to imply that the ferroxidase activity of ferritin is adequate in facilitating Fe(II) oxidation at all stages of iron deposition into ferritin, it is important to note that these data were obtained in vitro using nonphysiologic conditions. The possibility that these findings may have physiological significance is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Van Eden
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4705, USA
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Abstract
Recombinant human ferritin loaded with iron via its own ferroxidase activity did not sediment through a sucrose-density gradient as a function of iron content. Analysis of the recombinant ferritin by native PAGE demonstrated an increase in altered migration pattern of the ferritins with increasing sedimentation, indicating an alteration of the overall charge of ferritin. Additionally, analysis of the ferritin by SDS-PAGE under nonreducing conditions demonstrated that the ferritin had formed large aggregates, which suggests disulfide bonds are involved in the aggregation. The hydroxyl radical was detected by electron spin resonance spectroscopy during iron loading into recombinant ferritin by its own ferroxidase activity. However, recombinant human ferritin loaded with iron in the presence of ceruloplasmin sedimented through a sucrose-density gradient similar to native ferritin. This ferritin was shown to sediment as a function of iron content. The addition of ceruloplasmin to the iron loading assay eliminated the detection of the DMPO-*OH adduct observed during loading using the ferroxidase activity of ferritin. The elimination of the DMPO-*OH adduct was determined to be due to the ability of ceruloplasmin to completely reduce oxygen to water during the oxidation of the ferrous iron. The implications of these data for the present models for iron uptake into ferritin are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K D Welch
- Biotechnology Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4705, USA
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