The PCNA from Thermococcus fumicolans functionally interacts with DNA polymerase delta

Evolution of the archaeal and mammalian information processing systems: towards an archaeal model for human disease

Current evolutionary models suggest that Eukaryotes originated from within Archaea instead of being a sister lineage. To test this model of ancient evolution, we review recent studies and compare the three major information processing subsystems of replication, transcription and translation in the Archaea and Eukaryotes. Our hypothesis is that if the Eukaryotes arose within the archaeal radiation, their information processing systems will appear to be one of kind and not wholly original. Within the Eukaryotes, the mammalian or human systems are emphasized because of their importance in understanding health. Biochemical as well as genetic studies provide strong evidence for the functional similarity of archaeal homologs to the mammalian information processing system and their dissimilarity to the bacterial systems. In many independent instances, a simple archaeal system is functionally equivalent to more elaborate eukaryotic homologs, suggesting that evolution of complexity is likely an central feature of the eukaryotic information processing system. Because fewer components are often involved, biochemical characterizations of the archaeal systems are often easier to interpret. Similarly, the archaeal cell provides a genetically and metabolically simpler background, enabling convenient studies on the complex information processing system. Therefore, Archaea could serve as a parsimonious and tractable host for studying human diseases that arise in the information processing systems.

Crystal structures of two active proliferating cell nuclear antigens (PCNAs) encoded by Thermococcus kodakaraensis

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is a ring-shaped protein that encircles duplex DNA and plays an essential role in many DNA metabolic processes in archaea and eukarya. The eukaryotic and euryarchaea genomes contain a single gene encoding for PCNA. Interestingly, the genome of the euryarchaeon Thermococcus kodakaraensis contains two PCNA-encoding genes (TK0535 and TK0582), making it unique among the euryarchaea kingdom. It is shown here that the two T. kodakaraensis PCNA proteins support processive DNA synthesis by the polymerase. Both proteins form trimeric structures with characteristics similar to those of other archaeal and eukaryal PCNA proteins. One of the notable differences between the TK0535 and TK0582 rings is that the interfaces are different, resulting in different stabilities for the two trimers. The possible implications of these observations for PCNA functions are discussed.

Binding to PCNA in Euryarchaeal DNA Replication requires two PIP motifs for DNA polymerase D and one PIP motif for DNA polymerase B

Replicative DNA polymerases possess a canonical C-terminal proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-binding motif termed the PCNA-interacting protein (PIP) box. We investigated the role of the PIP box on the functional interactions of the two DNA polymerases, PabPol B (family B) and PabPol D (family D), from the hyperthermophilic euryarchaeon Pyrococcus abyssi, with its cognate PCNA. The PIP box was essential for interactions of PabPol B with PCNA, as shown by surface plasmon resonance and primer extension studies. In contrast, binding of PabPol D to PCNA was affected only partially by removing the PIP motif. We identified a second palindromic PIP box motif at the N-terminus of the large subunit of PabPol D that was required for the interactions of PabPol D with PCNA. Thus, two PIP motifs were needed for PabPol D for binding to PabPCNA. Moreover, the C-terminus of PabPCNA was essential for stimulation of PabPol D activity but not for stimulation of PabPol B activity. Neither DNA polymerase interacted with the PabPCNA interdomain connecting loop. Our data suggest that distinct processes are involved in PabPol D and PabPol B binding to PCNA, raising the possibility that Archaea require two mechanisms for recruiting replicative DNA polymerases at the replication fork.

DNA Polymerase Switching on Homotrimeric PCNA at the Replication Fork of the Euryarchaea Pyrococcus abyssi

DNA replication in Archaea, as in other organisms, involves large protein complexes called replisomes. In the Euryarchaeota subdomain, only two putative replicases have been identified, and their roles in leading and lagging strand DNA synthesis are still poorly understood. In this study, we focused on the coupling of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)-loading mechanisms with DNA polymerase function in the Euryarchaea Pyrococcus abyssi. PCNA spontaneously loaded onto primed DNA, and replication factor C dramatically increased this loading. Surprisingly, the family B DNA polymerase (Pol B) also increased PCNA loading, probably by stabilizing the clamp on primed DNA via an essential motif. In contrast, on an RNA-primed DNA template, the PCNA/Pol B complex was destabilized in the presence of dNTPs, allowing the family D DNA polymerase (Pol D) to perform RNA-primed DNA synthesis. Then, Pol D is displaced by Pol B to perform processive DNA synthesis, at least on the leading strand.

Gene cloning and function analysis of replication factor C from Thermococcus kodakaraensis KOD1

Replication factor C (RFC) catalyzes the assembly of circular proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) clamps around primed DNA, enabling processive synthesis by DNA polymerase. The RFC-like genes, arranged in tandem in the Thermococcus kodakaraensis KOD1 genome, were cloned individually and co-expressed in Escherichia coli cells. T. kodakaraensis KOD1 RFC homologue (Tk-RFC) consists of the small subunit (Tk-RFCS: MW=37.2 kDa) and the large subunit (Tk-RFCL: MW=57.2 kDa). The DNA elongation rate of the family B DNA polymerase from T. kodakaraensis KOD1 (KOD DNA polymerase), which has the highest elongation rate in all thermostable DNA polymerases, was increased about 1.7 times, when T. kodakaraensis KOD1 PCNA (Tk-PCNA) and the Tk-RFC at the equal molar ratio of KOD DNA polymerase were reacted with primed DNA.

Archeal DNA replication: eukaryal proteins in a bacterial context

Genome sequences of a number of archaea have revealed an apparent paradox in the phylogenies of the bacteria, archaea, and eukarya, as well as an intriguing set of problems to be resolved in the study of DNA replication. The archaea, long thought to be bacteria, are not only different enough to merit their own domain but also appear to be an interesting mosaic of bacterial, eukaryal, and unique features. Most archaeal proteins participating in DNA replication are more similar in sequence to those found in eukarya than to analogous replication proteins in bacteria. However, archaea have only a subset of the eukaryal replication machinery, apparently needing fewer polypeptides and structurally simpler complexes. The archaeal replication apparatus also contains features not found in other organisms owing, in part, to the broad range of environmental conditions, some extreme, in which members of this domain thrive. In this review the current knowledge of the mechanisms governing DNA replication in archaea is summarized and the similarities and differences of those of bacteria and eukarya are highlighted.

Mutational analysis of Pyrococcus furiosus replication factor C based on the three-dimensional structure

In eukaryotic DNA replication, replication factor C (RFC) acts as a "clamp loader" that loads PCNA onto a primed DNA template in an ATP-dependent manner. Proteins with functions essentially identical to that of RFC exist in Archaea. We have determined the crystal structure of the small subunit (RFCS) of Pyrococcus furiosus RFC at 2.8-A resolution. Using the information from the determined tertiary structure, we prepared several mutations in RFCS and biochemically characterized them. Truncation of the C-terminal alpha-helix (alpha16) causes a failure in RFCS oligomerization and a loss of the stimulating activity for the PCNA-dependent DNA synthesis by DNA polymerases. The site-directed reduction of the negative charges at the center part of the RFCS complex affected the stability of the RFC-PCNA interaction and reduced the clamp-loading activity. These results contribute to our general understanding of the structure-function relationship of the RFC molecule for the clamp-loading event.

Intermolecular ion pairs maintain the toroidal structure of Pyrococcus furiosus PCNA

Two mutant proliferating cell nuclear antigens from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus, PfuPCNA(D143A) and PfuPCNA(D143A/D147A), were prepared by site-specific mutagenesis. The results from gel filtration showed that mutations at D143 and D147 drastically affect the stability of the trimeric structure of PfuPCNA. The PfuPCNA(D143A) still retained the activity to stimulate the DNA polymerase reaction, but PfuPCNA(D143A/D147A) lost the activity. Crystal structures of the mutant PfuPCNAs were determined. Although the wild-type PCNA forms a toroidal trimer with intermolecular hydrogen bonds between the N- and C-terminal domains, the mutant PfuPCNAs exist as V-shaped dimers through intermolecular hydrogen bonds between the two C-terminal domains in the crystal. Because the mutated residues are involved in the intermolecular ion pairs through their side chains in the wild-type PfuPCNA, these ion pairs seem to play a key role in maintaining the toroidal structure of the PfuPCNA trimer. The comparison of the crystal structures revealed intriguing conformational flexibility of each domain in the PfuPCNA subunit. This structural versatility of PCNA may be involved in the mechanisms for ring opening and closing.

Replication factor C from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus abyssi does not need ATP hydrolysis for clamp-loading and contains a functionally conserved RFC PCNA-binding domain

The molecular organization of the replication complex in archaea is similar to that in eukaryotes. Only two proteins homologous to subunits of eukaryotic replication factor C (RFC) have been detected in Pyrococcus abyssi (Pab). The genes encoding these two proteins are arranged in tandem. We cloned these two genes and co-expressed the corresponding recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli. Two inteins present in the gene encoding the small subunit (PabRFC-small) were removed during cloning. The recombinant protein complex was purified by anion-exchange and hydroxyapatite chromatography. Also, the PabRFC-small subunit could be purified, while the large subunit (PabRFC-large) alone was completely insoluble. The highly purified PabRFC complex possessed an ATPase activity, which was not enhanced by DNA. The Pab proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) activated the PabRFC complex in a DNA-dependent manner, but the PabRFC-small ATPase activity was neither DNA-dependent nor PCNA-dependent. The PabRFC complex was able to stimulate PabPCNA-dependent DNA synthesis by the Pabfamily D heterodimeric DNA polymerase. Finally, (i) the PabRFC-large fraction cross-reacted with anti-human-RFC PCNA-binding domain antibody, corroborating the conservation of the protein sequence, (ii) the human PCNA stimulated the PabRFC complex ATPase activity in a DNA-dependent way and (iii) the PabRFC complex could load human PCNA onto primed single-stranded circular DNA, suggesting that the PCNA-binding domain of RFC has been functionally conserved during evolution. In addition, ATP hydrolysis was not required either for DNA polymerase stimulation or PCNA-loading in vitro.

Physical interaction between proliferating cell nuclear antigen and replication factor C fromPyrococcus furiosus

BACKGROUND

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), which is recognized as a DNA polymerase processivity factor, has direct interactions with various proteins involved in the important genetic information processes in Eukarya. We determined the crystal structure of PCNA from the hyperthermophilic archaeon, Pyrococcus furiosus (PfuPCNA) at 2.1 A resolution, and found that the toroidal ring-shaped structure, which consists of homotrimeric molecules, is highly conserved between the Eukarya and Archaea. This allowed us to examine its interaction with the loading factor at the atomic level.

RESULTS

The replication factor C (RFC) is known as the loading factor of PCNA on to the DNA strand. P. furiosus RFC (PfuRFC) has a PCNA binding motif (PIP-box) at the C-terminus of the large subunit (RFCL). An 11 residue-peptide containing a PIP-box sequence of RFCL inhibited the PCNA-dependent primer extension ability of P. furiosus PolI in a concentration-dependent manner. To understand the molecular interaction mechanism of PCNA with PCNA binding proteins, we solved the crystal structure of PfuPCNA complexed with the PIP-box peptide. The interaction mode of the two molecules is remarkably similar to that of human PCNA and a peptide containing the PIP-box of p21(WAF1/CIP1). Moreover, the PIP-box binding may have some effect on the stability of the ring structure of PfuPCNA by some domain shift.

CONCLUSIONS

Our structural analysis on PfuPCNA suggests that the interaction mode of the PIP-box with PCNA is generally conserved among the PCNA interacting proteins and that the functional meaning of the interaction via the PIP-box possibly depends on each protein. A movement of the C-terminal region of the PCNA monomer by PIP-box binding may cause the PCNA ring to be more rigid, suitable for its functions.

Understanding the enzymology of archaeal DNA replication: progress in form and function

The analysis of completed archaeal genome sequences led to the identification of a set of approximately 10-20 genes whose protein products were inferred to be involved in chromosomal DNA replication. Until recently, however, little was known of the biochemical properties of these proteins. Here, I review recent progress in this area brought about by biochemical and structural analysis. Aside from shedding considerable new light on the molecular machinery of DNA replication in the archaea, the results of these studies also present new opportunities for understanding the molecular events of chromosomal DNA replication in eukaryotic cells.

Characterization of two DNA polymerases from the hyperthermophilic euryarchaeon Pyrococcus abyssi

The complete genome sequence of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus abyssi revealed the presence of a family B DNA polymerase (Pol I) and a family D DNA polymerase (Pol II). To extend our knowledge about euryarchaeal DNA polymerases, we cloned the genes encoding these two enzymes and expressed them in Escherichia coli. The DNA polymerases (Pol I and Pol II) were purified to homogeneity and characterized. Pol I had a molecular mass of approximately 90 kDa, as estimated by SDS/PAGE. The optimum pH and Mg(2+) concentration of Pol I were 8.5-9.0 and 3 mm, respectively. Pol II is composed of two subunits that are encoded by two genes arranged in tandem on the P. abyssi genome. We cloned these genes and purified the Pol II DNA polymerase from an E. coli strain coexpressing the cloned genes. The optimum pH and Mg(2+) concentration of Pol II were 6.5 and 15-20 mm, respectively. Both P. abyssi Pol I and Pol II have associated 3'-->5' exonuclease activity although the exonuclease motifs usually found in DNA polymerases are absent in the archaeal family D DNA polymerase sequences. Sequence analysis has revealed that the small subunit of family D DNA polymerase and the Mre11 nucleases belong to the calcineurin-like phosphoesterase superfamily and that residues involved in catalysis and metal coordination in the Mre11 nuclease three-dimensional structure are strictly conserved in both families. One hypothesis is that the phosphoesterase domain of the small subunit is responsible for the 3'-->5' exonuclease activity of family D DNA polymerase. These results increase our understanding of euryarchaeal DNA polymerases and are of importance to push forward the complete understanding of the DNA replication in P. abyssi.

Functional interactions of an archaeal sliding clamp with mammalian clamp loader and DNA polymerase delta

BACKGROUND

By the total genome sequencing of several archaeal organisms, it has been confirmed that many archaeal proteins related to genetic information systems, including DNA replication, transcription and translation, have similar sequences to those of eukaryotes. In eukaryotic DNA replication, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) works in clamping DNA polymerases on the DNA template and accomplishes a processive DNA synthesis. Archaea encode PCNA homologues in their genomes and Pyrococcus furiosus PCNA (PfuPCNA) stimulates the DNA synthesizing activities of the DNA polymerases, Pol I and Pol II, in this organism.

RESULTS

We have demonstrated that PfuPCNA interacts functionally with calf thymus DNA polymerase delta (Pol delta) and stimulates its activity. Moreover, human replication factor C (RFC) enhances the PfuPCNA-dependent DNA synthesis activity of Pol delta, indicating that human RFC works as the clamp loader for PfuPCNA. These results showed that the three-dimensional structures of archaral PCNA and RFC are actually similar enough to their eukaryotic counterparts to allow a molecular substitution between the two biological domains, albeit at a lower efficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that the archaeal molecule interacts functionally with the eukaryotic members in the DNA replication process. This finding supports the idea that studies on the DNA replication mechanism of archaeal organisms will provide many important clues for understanding of the intricate molecular recognition that is inherent to the DNA replication machinery in Eukarya.