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Abstract
The discovery of the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family ligands and the realization that their bioactivities need to be tightly controlled temporally and spatially led to intensive research that has identified a multitude of extracellular modulators of TGF-β family ligands, uncovered their functions in developmental and pathophysiological processes, defined the mechanisms of their activities, and explored potential modulator-based therapeutic applications in treating human diseases. These studies revealed a diverse repertoire of extracellular and membrane-associated molecules that are capable of modulating TGF-β family signals via control of ligand availability, processing, ligand-receptor interaction, and receptor activation. These molecules include not only soluble ligand-binding proteins that were conventionally considered as agonists and antagonists of TGF-β family of growth factors, but also extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and proteoglycans that can serve as "sink" and control storage and release of both the TGF-β family ligands and their regulators. This extensive network of soluble and ECM modulators helps to ensure dynamic and cell-specific control of TGF-β family signals. This article reviews our knowledge of extracellular modulation of TGF-β growth factors by diverse proteins and their molecular mechanisms to regulate TGF-β family signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenbei Chang
- Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294
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Hashimoto M, Koda M, Furuya T, Murata A, Yamazaki M, Takahashi K. Intrathecal Noggin administration in rats temporally ameliorates mechanical allodynia induced by a chronic constriction injury. eNeurologicalSci 2016; 4:4-9. [PMID: 29430541 PMCID: PMC5803104 DOI: 10.1016/j.ensci.2016.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2015] [Revised: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic intractable neuropathic pain after central or peripheral nervous system injury remains refractory to therapeutic intervention. Using microarray and RT-qPCR methods, we found that Noggin mRNA is downregulated in the lumbar enlargement 2 weeks after chronic constriction injury (CCI) in rats. Eight-week-old female Sprague Dawley rats were used for the CCI model. Two weeks after CCI, rats underwent a laminectomy at L5 under halothane anesthesia, and a silicone tube connected to an osmotic minipump was inserted intrathecally for 14 days. Rats were administered Noggin ranging from 10 ng/ml to 10 μg/ml. Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) was used as a control. The time course of mechanical allodynia was assessed for 5 weeks using von Frey filaments. An ANOVA showed that rats administered Noggin at 2 μg/ml had significantly less mechanical allodynia compared with controls. We next compared the effect of intrathecal administration (14 days) of Noggin (2 μg/ml), bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4; 2 μg/ml), or BMP4 (μg/ml) + Noggin (μg/ml) with controls. Only Noggin administration significantly reduced mechanical allodynia in the CCI model. Fluorescence immunohistochemistry indicated that Noggin administration decreased astrocyte accumulation in the dorsal horn compared with PBS after administration for one week. BMP4-driven conversion of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) to type 2 astrocytes is inhibited by Noggin Hampton et al. (2007) . We speculated that Noggin administration inhibits the conversion of OPCs to astrocytes, and decreases glial fibrillar acidic protein expression. This histological condition could decrease neuropathic pain. Noggin mRNA is significantly down-regulated two weeks after CCI in rats. The mechanical allodynia was decreased in Noggin administration at seven days. Noggin administration influenced GFAP expression and reduced mechanical allodynia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Hashimoto
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Seikeikai Chiba Medical Center, 1-7-1, Minami-Cho, Chuo-Ku, Chiba 2600842, Japan
| | - Masao Koda
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Takeo Furuya
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Atsushi Murata
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Masashi Yamazaki
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Tsukuba University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Kazuhisa Takahashi
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan
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Gulino R, Gulisano M. Noggin and Sonic hedgehog are involved in compensatory changes within the motoneuron-depleted mouse spinal cord. J Neurol Sci 2013; 332:102-9. [PMID: 23859181 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2013.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2013] [Revised: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Sonic hedgehog and Noggin are morphogenetic factors involved in neural induction and ventralization of the neural tube, but recent findings suggest that they could participate in regeneration and functional recovery after injury. Here, in order to verify if these mechanisms could occur in the spinal cord and involve synaptic plasticity, we measured the expression levels of Sonic hedgehog, Noggin, Choline Acetyltransferase, Synapsin-I and Glutamate receptor subunits (GluR1, GluR2, GluR4), in a motoneuron-depleted mouse spinal cord lesion model obtained by intramuscular injection of Cholera toxin-B saporin. The lesion caused differential expression changes of the analyzed proteins. Moreover, motor performance was found correlated with Sonic hedgehog and Noggin expression in lesioned animals. The results also suggest that Sonic hedgehog could collaborate in modulating synaptic plasticity. Together, these findings confirm that the injured mammalian spinal cord has intrinsic potential for repair and that some proteins classically involved in development, such as Sonic hedgehog and Noggin could have important roles in regeneration and functional restoration, by mechanisms including synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosario Gulino
- Department of Bio-Medical Sciences, Section of Physiology, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, Catania, Italy.
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Gene expression of axon growth promoting factors in the deer antler. PLoS One 2010; 5:e15706. [PMID: 21187928 PMCID: PMC3004953 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2010] [Accepted: 11/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The annual regeneration cycle of deer (Cervidae, Artiodactyla) antlers represents a unique model of epimorphic regeneration and rapid growth in adult mammals. Regenerating antlers are innervated by trigeminal sensory axons growing through the velvet, the modified form of skin that envelopes the antler, at elongation velocities that reach one centimetre per day in the common deer (Cervus elaphus). Several axon growth promoters like NT-3, NGF or IGF-1 have been described in the antler. To increase the knowledge on the axon growth environment, we have combined different gene-expression techniques to identify and characterize the expression of promoting molecules not previously described in the antler velvet. Cross-species microarray analyses of deer samples on human arrays allowed us to build up a list of 90 extracellular or membrane molecules involved in axon growth that were potentially being expressed in the antler. Fifteen of these genes were analysed using PCR and sequencing techniques to confirm their expression in the velvet and to compare it with the expression in other antler and skin samples. Expression of 8 axon growth promoters was confirmed in the velvet, 5 of them not previously described in the antler. In conclusion, our work shows that antler velvet provides growing axons with a variety of promoters of axon growth, sharing many of them with deer's normal and pedicle skin.
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Szpara ML, Vranizan K, Tai YC, Goodman CS, Speed TP, Ngai J. Analysis of gene expression during neurite outgrowth and regeneration. BMC Neurosci 2007; 8:100. [PMID: 18036227 PMCID: PMC2245955 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-8-100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2007] [Accepted: 11/23/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The ability of a neuron to regenerate functional connections after injury is influenced by both its intrinsic state and also by extrinsic cues in its surroundings. Investigations of the transcriptional changes undergone by neurons during in vivo models of injury and regeneration have revealed many transcripts associated with these processes. Because of the complex milieu of interactions in vivo, these results include not only expression changes directly related to regenerative outgrowth and but also unrelated responses to surrounding cells and signals. In vitro models of neurite outgrowth provide a means to study the intrinsic transcriptional patterns of neurite outgrowth in the absence of extensive extrinsic cues from nearby cells and tissues. Results We have undertaken a genome-wide study of transcriptional activity in embryonic superior cervical ganglia (SCG) and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) during a time course of neurite outgrowth in vitro. Gene expression observed in these models likely includes both developmental gene expression patterns and regenerative responses to axotomy, which occurs as the result of tissue dissection. Comparison across both models revealed many genes with similar gene expression patterns during neurite outgrowth. These patterns were minimally affected by exposure to the potent inhibitory cue Semaphorin3A, indicating that this extrinsic cue does not exert major effects at the level of nuclear transcription. We also compared our data to several published studies of DRG and SCG gene expression in animal models of regeneration, and found the expression of a large number of genes in common between neurite outgrowth in vitro and regeneration in vivo. Conclusion Many gene expression changes undergone by SCG and DRG during in vitro outgrowth are shared between these two tissue types and in common with in vivo regeneration models. This suggests that the genes identified in this in vitro study may represent new candidates worthy of further study for potential roles in the therapeutic regrowth of neuronal connections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moriah L Szpara
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA.
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Jevince AR, Kadison SR, Pittman AJ, Chien CB, Kaprielian Z. Distribution of EphB receptors and ephrin-B1 in the developing vertebrate spinal cord. J Comp Neurol 2006; 497:734-50. [PMID: 16786562 PMCID: PMC2637817 DOI: 10.1002/cne.21001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Contact-dependent interactions between EphB receptors and ephrin-B ligands mediate a variety of cell-cell communication events in the developing and mature central nervous system (CNS). These predominantly repulsive interactions occur at the interface between what are considered to be mutually exclusive EphB and ephrin-B expression domains. We previously used receptor and ligand affinity probes to show that ephrin-B ligands are expressed in the floor plate and within a dorsal region of the embryonic mouse spinal cord, while EphB receptors are present on decussated segments of commissural axons that navigate between these ephrin-B domains. Here we present the generation and characterization of two new monoclonal antibodies, mAb EfB1-3, which recognizes EphB1, EphB2, and EphB3, and mAb efrnB1, which is specific for ephrin-B1. We use these reagents and polyclonal antibodies specific for EphB1, EphB2, EphB3, or ephrin-B1 to describe the spatiotemporal expression patterns of EphB receptors and ephrin-B1 in the vertebrate spinal cord. Consistent with affinity probe binding, we show that EphB1, EphB2, and EphB3 are each preferentially expressed on decussated segments of commissural axons in vivo and in vitro, and that ephrin-B1 is expressed in a dorsal domain of the spinal cord that includes the roof plate. In contrast to affinity probe binding profiles, we show here that EphB1, EphB2, and EphB3 are present on the ventral commissure, and that EphB1 and EphB3 are expressed on axons that compose the dorsal funiculus. In addition, we unexpectedly find that mesenchymal cells, which surround the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion, express ephrin-B1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela R Jevince
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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Honig MG, Camilli SJ, Surineni KM, Knight BK, Hardin HM. The contributions of BMP4, positive guidance cues, and repulsive molecules to cutaneous nerve formation in the chick hindlimb. Dev Biol 2005; 282:257-73. [PMID: 15936345 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2004] [Revised: 03/04/2005] [Accepted: 03/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Our previous surgical manipulations have shown that the target ectoderm is necessary for the initial formation of one of the major cutaneous nerves in the embryonic chick limb (Honig, M.G., Camilli, S.J., Xue, Q.S., 2004. Ectoderm removal prevents cutaneous nerve formation and perturbs sensory axon growth in the chick hindlimb. Dev. Biol. 266, 27-42.). Moreover, the target ectoderm is required during a critical time period, at approximately St. 24, when those axons are about to diverge from the hindlimb plexus. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, here we examined the effects of removing the ectoderm at St. 24 on a variety of molecules expressed within the limb. We find that, while ectoderm removal is accompanied by changes in the expression of Lmx1, fibronectin, EphA7, cDermo-1, and in the complement of muscle cells, these changes do not account for the cutaneous nerve deficit. In contrast, an upregulation of PNA-binding sites and a downregulation of Bmp4 appear to be associated with this nerve deficit. Exogenous BMP4 reversed the effect of ectoderm removal on cutaneous nerve formation, but did not act as a chemoattractant. Our results suggest that BMP4, together with permissive and repulsive molecules that growing cutaneous axons encounter in the local environment and with signaling molecules, originating from and/or dependent on the ectoderm, work in concert to ensure proper cutaneous nerve formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia G Honig
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Tennessee College of Medicine, The Health Science Center, 855 Monroe Avenue, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
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Yanagita M. BMP antagonists: Their roles in development and involvement in pathophysiology. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2005; 16:309-17. [PMID: 15951218 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2005.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2004] [Accepted: 02/21/2005] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are phylogenetically conserved signaling molecules that belong to the transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta superfamily, and are involved in the cascades of body patterning and morphogenesis. The activities of BMPs are precisely regulated by certain classes of molecules that are recently recognized as BMP antagonists. BMP antagonists function through direct association with BMPs, thus prohibiting BMPs from binding their cognate receptors. In this review, the classification and functions of BMP antagonists will be discussed, especially focusing on the new family of tissue-specific BMP antagonists composed of uterine sensitization-associated gene 1 (USAG-1) and sclerostin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motoko Yanagita
- COE Formation for Genomic Analysis of Disease Model Animals with Multiple Genetic Alterations, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
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Bovolenta P. Morphogen signaling at the vertebrate growth cone: A few cases or a general strategy? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 64:405-16. [PMID: 16041755 DOI: 10.1002/neu.20161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Axon navigation relies on the competence of growth cones to sense and interpret attractive and repulsive guidance cues present along their trajectory. For most neurons, this process is mediated by a limited number of conserved families of ligand-receptor signaling systems, including Ephrin/Eph, Netrins/DCC-Unc5, Slits/Robo, and Semaphorins/Plexin-Neuropilin. Recent studies have demonstrated that some neurons respond also to well-known secreted signaling molecules, best known for their roles as morphogens, such as BMP7, SHH, FGF8, and Wnt. Thus, retina ganglion cell axon navigation is influenced by FGF, SHH, and possibly BMP signaling. Similarly, commissural neurons in the spinal cord respond sequentially to the activity of BMP, SHH, and Wnt to extend toward and away from their intermediate target, the floor plate. The data that support this conclusion will be summarized and how morphogens may signal at the growth cone will be discussed.
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Dudas M, Kaartinen V. Tgf-beta superfamily and mouse craniofacial development: interplay of morphogenetic proteins and receptor signaling controls normal formation of the face. Curr Top Dev Biol 2005; 66:65-133. [PMID: 15797452 DOI: 10.1016/s0070-2153(05)66003-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marek Dudas
- Developmental Biology Program at the Saban Research Institute of Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90027, USA
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Fletcher RB, Watson AL, Harland RM. Expression of Xenopus tropicalis noggin1 and noggin2 in early development: two noggin genes in a tetrapod. Gene Expr Patterns 2004; 5:225-30. [PMID: 15567718 DOI: 10.1016/j.modgep.2004.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2004] [Revised: 08/05/2004] [Accepted: 08/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We report the identification of two distinct noggin genes in the tetrapod Xenopus tropicalis. Noggin functions to antagonize BMP signaling in many developmental contexts, and much work has explored its role in early vertebrate development. We have identified two noggin genes in the tropical clawed frog, X. tropicalis, a diploid anuran which is being explored for its potential as a genetic model system for early vertebrate development. Here we report the cloning and characterization of the Xenopus tropicalis noggin1 and noggin2 genes, which have distinct expression domains in the early embryo with one overlapping domain in the anterior neural tissue. X. tropicalis noggin1 expression is very similar to that of noggin in Xenopus laevis, with expression beginning in the blastula organizer region and continuing through gastrulation and neurulation in the organizer and notochord. Later, it is also expressed in the anterior neural ridge and subsequent forebrain; noggin1 is also expressed in the pharyngeal arches after neural tube closure. At the tadpole stage expression is maintained in the dorsal neural tube and is present in the otic vesicle. However, the expression of noggin2 is much more similar to the expression of noggin2 in D. rerio with expression in the forebrain, hindbrain, and somites, but unlike D. rerio, X. tropicalis noggin2 is expressed in the heart by stage 28. This work presents the first example of a tetrapod with at least two noggin genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell B Fletcher
- Division of Genetics and Development, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Huillard E, Marx M. Localized expression ofdrm/gremlin in the central nervous system of the chicken embryo. Dev Dyn 2004; 229:688-94. [PMID: 14991724 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.10432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Drm/Gremlin is a member of the Dan family of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) antagonists known to function in vertebrate limb outgrowth and lung morphogenesis. Its expression detected in neurons and astrocytes of the adult brain suggested a possible role in brain morphogenesis and/or neuronal versus glial differentiation. To investigate this role, we analysed its expression pattern in the central nervous system of the chicken embryo, by in situ hybridization. In the brain, we found that drm is mainly expressed in the medial pallium in the dorsal telencephalon and in the ventral diencephalon. drm was detected in the meninges of the spinal cord. We also found that drm was expressed in the developing optic nerve and at the optic nerve/pecten junction. In all these territories, distinct bmps are expressed. Taken together, these data suggest that Drm could play a role in the development of the medial pallium and during optic nerve and pecten development by modulating BMP signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Huillard
- Régulations Cellulaires et Oncogénèse, UMR 146 du CNRS, Institut Curie, Centre Universitaire 91405, Orsay, France
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Anderson CNG, Ohta K, Quick MM, Fleming A, Keynes R, Tannahill D. Molecular analysis of axon repulsion by the notochord. Development 2003; 130:1123-33. [PMID: 12571104 DOI: 10.1242/dev.00327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
During development of the amniote peripheral nervous system, the initial trajectory of primary sensory axons is determined largely by the action of axon repellents. We have shown previously that tissues flanking dorsal root ganglia, the notochord lying medially and the dermamyotomes lying laterally, are sources of secreted molecules that prevent axons from entering inappropriate territories. Although there is evidence suggesting that SEMA3A contributes to the repellent activity of the dermamyotome, the nature of the activity secreted by the notochord remains undetermined. We have employed an expression cloning strategy to search for axon repellents secreted by the notochord, and have identified SEMA3A as a candidate repellent. Moreover, using a spectrum of different axon populations to assay the notochord activity, together with neuropilin/Fc receptor reagents to block semaphorin activity in collagen gel assays, we show that SEMA3A probably contributes to notochord-mediated repulsion. Sympathetic axons that normally avoid the midline in vivo are also repelled, in part, by a semaphorin-based notochord activity. Although our results implicate semaphorin signalling in mediating repulsion by the notochord, repulsion of early dorsal root ganglion axons is only partially blocked when using neuropilin/Fc reagents. Moreover, retinal axons, which are insensitive to SEMA3A, are also repelled by the notochord. We conclude that multiple factors act in concert to guide axons in this system, and that further notochord repellents remain to be identified.
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