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Guo P, Carey E, Plaisted-Grant K, Cheke LG. Episodic memory during middle childhood: What is developing? J Exp Child Psychol 2024; 240:105828. [PMID: 38104459 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Whereas previous research has concentrated on the emergence of episodic memory during the early years, fewer investigations have explored the details of this development through middle and late childhood. Considerable variation in task demands and testing methodologies have rendered the trajectory of episodic memory during this period unclear, particularly with regard to which elements are in a state of change at which time. This study separately assessed memory for item, location, and temporal order, as well as integrated what-where-when (WWW) information using a WWW memory test (the Treasure Hunt task), with 84 children aged 6 to 12 years. Two versions of the task were used, varying in the degree of retrieval support while keeping encoding constant. Results show that episodic memory continued to develop across this period, with individual item, spatial, temporal, and WWW memory all improving relatively linearly with age. These improvements were underpinned by both the associative binding and strategic control processes. These findings suggest that it is not any one element of episodic memory that is driving development during this period but that all aspects are continuing to mature in parallel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panyuan Guo
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Emma Carey
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | | | - Lucy G Cheke
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK.
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Liverani MC, Manuel AL, Nahum L, Guardabassi V, Tomasetto C, Schnider A. [Formula: see text]Children's sense of reality: The development of orbitofrontal reality filtering. Child Neuropsychol 2015; 23:408-421. [PMID: 26678872 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2015.1120861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Orbitofrontal reality filtering denotes a memory control mechanism necessary to keep thought and behavior in phase with reality. In adults, it is mediated by the orbitofrontal cortex and subcortical connections and its failure induces reality confusion, confabulations, and disorientation. Here we investigated for the first time the development of this mechanism in 83 children from ages 7 to 11 years and 20 adults. We used an adapted version of a continuous recognition task composed of two runs with the same picture set but arranged in different order. The first run measures storage and recognition capacity (item memory), the second run measures reality filtering. We found that accuracy and reaction times in response to all stimulus types of the task improved in parallel across ages. Importantly, at no age was there a notable performance drop in the second run. This means that reality filtering was already efficacious at age 7 and then steadily improved as item memory became stronger. At the age of 11 years, reality filtering dissociated from item memory, similar to the pattern observed in adults. However, performance in 11-year-olds was still inferior as compared to adults. The study shows that reality filtering develops early in childhood and becomes more efficacious as memory capacity increases. For the time being, it remains unresolved, however, whether this function already depends on the orbitofrontal cortex, as it does in adults, or on different brain structures in the developing brains of children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Chiara Liverani
- a Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Medical School , University of Geneva , Switzerland
| | - Aurélie L Manuel
- a Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Medical School , University of Geneva , Switzerland
| | - Louis Nahum
- a Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Medical School , University of Geneva , Switzerland
| | | | - Carlo Tomasetto
- b Department of Psychology , University of Bologna , Bologna , Italy
| | - Armin Schnider
- a Laboratory of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation, Medical School , University of Geneva , Switzerland.,c Division of Neurorehabilitation, Department of Clinical Neurosciences , University Hospital and University of Geneva , Switzerland
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Chalmers KA. Whose picture is this? Children's memory for item and source information. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014; 32:480-91. [DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2013] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A. Chalmers
- School of Psychology; University of Newcastle; Callaghan New South Wales Australia
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Wandrey L, Lyon TD, Quas JA, Friedman WJ. MALTREATED CHILDREN'S ABILITY TO ESTIMATE TEMPORAL LOCATION AND NUMEROSITY OF PLACEMENT CHANGES AND COURT VISITS. PSYCHOLOGY, PUBLIC POLICY, AND LAW : AN OFFICIAL LAW REVIEW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA COLLEGE OF LAW AND THE UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI SCHOOL OF LAW 2012; 18:79-104. [PMID: 22347789 PMCID: PMC3280883 DOI: 10.1037/a0024812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Research examining children's temporal knowledge has tended to utilize brief temporal intervals and singular, neutral events, and is not readily generalizable to legal settings in which maltreated children are asked temporal questions about salient, repeated abuse that often occurred in the distant past. To understand how well maltreated children can describe temporal location and numerosity of documented, personal experiences, we assessed 167 6- to 10-year-old maltreated children's temporal memory for changes in their living arrangements and prior visits to court. Small percentages of children were capable of providing exact temporal location information (age, month, or season) regarding their first or last placement or court experience, or numerosities for placements or court visits. Greater knowledge of current temporal locations did not predict better performance. However, older children's performance for several temporal judgments was better than chance, and their reports were not largely discrepant from the truth. Findings suggest caution when questioning maltreated children about when and how many times prior events occurred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Wandrey
- Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine
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Naito M, Suzuki T. “When did I learn and when shall I act?”: The developmental relationship between episodic future thinking and memory. J Exp Child Psychol 2011; 109:397-411. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2010] [Revised: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Orbach Y, Lamb ME. Young children's references to temporal attributes of allegedly experienced events in the course of forensic interviews. Child Dev 2007; 78:1100-20. [PMID: 17650128 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01055.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Developmental differences in references to temporal attributes of allegedly experienced events were examined in 250 forensic interviews of 4- to 10-year-old alleged victims of sexual abuse. Children's ages, the specific temporal attributes referenced, and the types of memory tapped by the interviewers' questions significantly affected the quantity and quality of temporal references produced. The findings documented age-related increases in 4- to 10-year-olds' references to temporal attributes, using the appropriate relational terminology, both spontaneously and in response to temporal requests. More references to temporal attributes were elicited from recall than from recognition memory, highlighting spontaneous reporting capabilities. Implications for theories concerning the developing understanding of temporal concepts and for the design of effective, age-appropriate, forensic interview techniques are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Orbach
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, USA, and Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, University of Cambridge, UK
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Developmental differences in judgments of recency and frequency: Quantitative or qualitative? COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2005.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Chalmers KA. Basis of recency and frequency judgements of novel faces: generalised strength or episode-specific memories? Memory 2005; 13:484-98. [PMID: 16020378 DOI: 10.1080/09658210444000188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Evidence for generalised and episode-specific strength in judgements of recency and frequency of novel faces was investigated in two experiments. Novel faces (created using an identikit program) were presented either once or three times in either of two study sets, separated by a 4 minute (Experiment 1) or 24 hour (Experiment 2) delay. In Experiment 2, the study-test phases were preceded by a familiarisation phase in which faces were presented either with or without an occupational label (some faces were not familiarised). In both experiments, judgements of recency were consistent with greater reliance on generalised strength (an amalgamation of recency and frequency of presentation), although there was some evidence for a contribution of episode-specific information. Familiarisation had opposite effects on judgements of recency and frequency, with familiarised faces judged as having been studied more frequently (three times), but less recently (yesterday) than unfamiliarised faces. The latter result is consistent with participants discounting generalised strength when episode-specific information is inadequate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A Chalmers
- Shool of Behavioural Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia.
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Cordón IM, Saetermoe CL, Goodman GS. Facilitating children's accurate responses: conversational rules and interview style. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.1090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Hintzman DL. Judgment of frequency versus recognition confidence: Repetition and recursive reminding. Mem Cognit 2004; 32:336-50. [PMID: 15190724 DOI: 10.3758/bf03196863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Judgments of presentation frequency (JOFs) were compared with recognition confidence ratings (RCRs) in a single memory experiment. Two differences were found: (1) Relative to the effect of exposure duration, frequency had a larger effect on JOF than it had on RCR. (2) Replicating a finding by Proctor (1977), normalized memory operating characteristic (zMOC) curves for JOF had slopes greater than 1.0, whereas those for RCR had slopes of less than 1.0. The slope difference was found to be attributable to the first study trial. The results are contrary to the hypothesis that a single strength or familiarity dimension underlies JOF and RCR. To explain both findings, a new hypothetical basis of JOF is proposed. Repetition is assumed to trigger study phase reminding, which, in turn, is encoded into memory. Remindings can be recursively embedded, and the depth of recursion, recollected at test, is the primary basis of JOF. The hypothesis appears consistent with a broad range of JOF findings.
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Friedman WJ. The Development of a Differentiated Sense of the Past and the Future. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2407(03)31006-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Kontak KL, Somerville SC. Young Children's Updating and Recall of Impressions: Effects of Informativeness and Deception. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2001. [DOI: 10.1207/s15327647jcd0203_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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